Analisys of Exstrinsic Feedback in Motor Learning of Alpin Skiing Skills : Doctoral Thesis

S ciljem konstrukcije i validacije mjernog instrumenta za procjenu ekstrinzičnih povratnih informacija te utvrđivanjem relacija antropoloških obilježja s diskretnim i serijskim motoričkim znanjima iz alpskog skijanja provedeno je istraživanje na uzorku od 105 polaznika prvog i drugog dijela specijalističke edukacije za učitelje skijanja Hrvatskog zbora učitelja i trenera sportova na snijegu (HZUTS). Ukupni uzorak ispitanika po kriterijima spola i ranga podijeljen je na četiri subuzorka i to: 16 polaznica (Ž) i 51 polaznik (M) izobrazbe za učitelja skijanja, 10 kandidatkinja (Ž) i 28 (M) kandidata za pripravnike učitelje skijanja. Ispitanici su testirani s 9 standardnih morfoloških mjera (za procjenu longitudinalne i transverzalne dimenzionalnosti skeleta, volumena i masa tijela te potkožnog masnog tkiva); 8 testova za procjenu motoričkih sposobnosti (2 testa za procjenu agilnosti, test za procjenu frekvencije pokreta, test za procjenu eksplozivne snage, 2 testa za procjenu repetitivne i statičke snage te 2 testa za procjenu ravnoteže); 5 varijabli za procjenu diskretnih motoričkih znanja alpskog skijanja; 2 varijable za procjenu natjecateljske učinkovitosti te 2 varijable za procjenu serijskog znanja alpskog skijanja (novokonstruirani poligon). U svrhu analiziranja osjetljivosti izračunati su deskriptivni statistički parametri dok su normaliteti distribucija provjereni Kolmogorov – Smirnovljevim testom (KS). Objektivnost sudaca utvrđena je Cronbach alpha koeficijentom, inter - item korelacijom te interkorelacijama između sudaca (čestica). Razlike između subuzoraka u primijenjenim varijablama izračunate su analizom varijance. Sukladno postavljenim ciljevima relacije između prediktorskih skupova varijabli i kriterija utvrđene su serijom regresijskih analiza. Dobiveni rezultati ukazuju na dobre metrijske karakteristike novokonstruiranog poligona za procjenu skijaških znanja, a ta spoznaja otvara nove perspektive u unaprjeđenju dokimoloških zahvata u procesu izobrazbe učitelja skijanja. Razlike u morfološkim obilježjima subuzoraka s obzirom na skijaški rang nisu utvrđene što znači da muške i ženske populacije kandidata za učitelje i pripravnika učitelja skijanja posjeduju sličan morfološki sklop. Međutim, utvrđeno je da pripravnici i pripravnice za učitelja skijanja posjeduju višu razinu motoričkih sposobnosti od kandidata i kandidatkinja za učitelje, a posebno u mjerama temeljem kojih je moguće procijeniti kondicijsku pripremljenost što ukazuje na izraženiju kineziološku angažiranost kandidata za pripravnike što se može dovesti u vezu i s dobi ispitanika. U prostoru skijaških znanja, odnosno skijaške kvalitete dobile su se oprečne informacije koje su od iznimnog značaja. Naime, kod muške populacije utvrđena je očekivana superiornost kandidata za učitelje skijanja u izvedbi skijaških elemenata u odnosu na polaznike pripravničkog tečaja, što kod ženske populacije nije slučaj. Pripravnice za učitelje skijanja ostvarile su bolje rezultate u svim testovima, a statistički značajne razlike utvrđene su u izvedbi izrazito dinamičkih skijaških tehnika koje karakterizira brza promjena pravca kretanja. Uzrok ove neuobičajene pojave, koja može (i treba) imati reperkusije na proces selekcije učitelja skijanja, leži u činjenici da polovicu populacije pripravnica učitelja skijanja čine natjecateljice u alpskom skijanju. Dakle, prethodna natjecateljska angažiranost u skijanju više je nego dobar prediktor za selekciju kvalitetnih učitelja skijanja. Analizom utjecaja pojedinih dimenzija antropološkog statusa na kvalitetu izvedbe i rezultatsku učinkovitost dobivene su također zanimljive informacije koje su uglavnom potvrdile prethodne spoznaje (uz značajan doprinos produbljivanju istih) ali i dovele do novih informacija. Naime, ponovno su potvrđene dosadašnje spoznaje koje su pokazale da morfološka građa nema presudan utjecaj na razinu usvojenosti skijaških znanja učitelja skijanja. Međutim, za razliku od prethodnih istraživanja, u području motoričkih sposobnosti kod muške populacije utvrđeno je kako viša razina motoričkih sposobnosti, a posebno kondicijska pripremljenost, ima statistički značajan utjecaj na kvalitetu izvedbe kompleksnog skijaškog poligona. Analizom utjecaja diskretnih i serijskih motoričkih znanja na izvedbu poligona utvrđeno je kako se temeljem razine motoričkih znanja može napraviti sasvim logična predikcija kvalitete izvedbe i rezultatske učinkovitosti u svladavanju skijaškog poligona kod kandidata za učitelje i pripravnike učitelja skijanja. Iako to u konačnici nema poseban značaj na ukupnu spoznaju valja naglasiti da se u ovom slučaju temeljem više razne diskretnih i serijskih motoričkih znanja kod ženske populacije može napraviti preciznija predikcija brzine izvedbe, a kod muške populacije kvalitete izvedbe poligona. Razlozi se vjerojatno nalaze u već spomenutoj domeni natjecateljske skijaške angažiranosti, posebno kandidatkinja za pripravnike učitelja skijanja. Visoke korelacije između kvalitete izvedbe i rezultatske učinkovitosti pri svladavanju skijaškog poligona ukazuju na opravdanu primjenu oba sustava procjenjivanja skijaških znanja učitelja skijanja. Iako je ekspertna procjena motoričkih znanja u pravilu nezamjenjiva, dobiveni rezultati omogućavaju i drugačiji pristup procjenjivanja kvalitete učitelja skijanja koji u konačnici egzistira u natjecateljskom dijelu alpskog skijanja. Dakle, ekonomičnost i egzaktnost testiranja izvedbe poligona vremenskom mjerom, umjesto procjene sudaca je stvarnost i vjerojatno izgledna budućnost. Međutim, preporuča se odabrati put «paralelnog» ocjenjivanje što u konačnici može dovesti do stvaranja kvalitetnih vremenskih normi koje mogu značajno unaprijediti proces selekcije u izobrazbi učitelja skijanja ali i drugih populacija koje pripadaju obitelji naprednih alpskih skijašaA research on a sample of 105 participants of the first and second part of the specialised training for ski instructors of the Croatian Snow Sport Instructors and Trainers Association (HZUTS) was conducted with the purpose of constructing and validating a measuring instrument for the evaluation of extrinsic feedback and determining relations of anthropological characteristics with discrete and serial motor skills in alpine skiing. The total sample of subjects according to the criteria of sex and ranking was divided into four subsamples: 16 female participants and 51 male participants in ski instructor training, 10 female and 28 male candidates for trainee ski instructors. The subjects were tested with 9 standard morphological measures (for the assessment of longitudinal and transversal skeleton dimensionality, body and subcutaneous fat tissue volume and mass); 8 tests for the assessment of motor skills (2 tests for the assessment of agility, test for the assessment of movement frequency, test for the assessment of explosive power, 2 tests for the assessment of repetitive and static power and 2 tests for the balance assessment); 5 variables for the assessment of discrete motor skills in alpine skiing; 2 variables for the assessment of competition performance and 2 variables for the assessment of serial skills in alpine skiing (a newly constructed training ground). Descriptive statistical parameters were calculated in order to analyze sensitivity, while the normality of distributions was verified with the Kolmogorov– Smirnov test (KS). The objectivity of the judges was determined with the help of the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, inter-item correlation and intercorrelations among the judges (items). The differences between the subsamples in the applied variables were calculated with the analysis of variance. In accordance with the set targets of the relation between predictor variable clusters and criteria were determined in a series of regression analyses. The obtained results point to good metrical characteristics of the newly constructed training ground for the assessment of skiing skills, and this finding opens up new perspectives for the upgrade of docimological practices in the process of ski instructors training. The differences in morphological characteristics of subsamples given the skiing ranking were not found, which means that male and female populations of candidates for instructors and trainee ski instructors have a similar morphological frame. However, it was found that male and female trainee ski instructors have a higher level of motor skills than male and female candidates for instructors, especially in measurements based on which it is possible to assess physical fitness. This points to a more pronounced kinesiological engagement of trainee candidates which may be related to the subjects’ age as well. Contrary information of great significance was obtained with regard to skiing skills, i.e. skiing quality. Namely, in male population, expected superiority of ski instructor candidates as opposed to participants in the trainee training was discovered in the performance of skiing elements, but that was not the case in the female population. Female trainee ski instructors achieved better results in all tests, and statistically significant differences were found in the performance of distinctively dynamic skiing techniques which are characterised by a fast change in movement direction. The cause of this unusual occurrence, which may (and should) have repercussions on the process of ski instructors selection, is the fact that half of the female trainee ski instructors are alpine skiing competitors. Therefore, former skiing competition experience is more than a good predictor for the selection of high-quality ski instructors. By analysing the effect of individual dimensions of anthropological status on performance quality and result efficiency interesting information were obtained and they mostly confirmed previous findings (along with a significant contribution to their expansion), but some new information was also found. Namely, former findings showing that morphological build does not have a crucial influence on the skiing knowledge level of ski instructors were confirmed again. However, as opposed to previous research, in the area of motor skills in male population it was found that a higher level of motor skills, and especially physical fitness, has a statistically significant influence on the quality of performance in the complex ski training ground. Analysing the effect of discrete and serial motor skills on performance in the training ground showed that based on the motor skills level a completely logical prediction of performance quality and result efficiency in mastering the skiing training ground for instructor candidates and trainee ski instructors can be made. Although in the end it does not have a special significance for the overall findings, it must be emphasized that in this case, based on a higher level of discrete and serial motor skills in female population, a more precise prediction of performance speed and in male population of the training ground performance quality can be carried out. The reasons can probably be found in the already mentioned fact of skiing competition experience, especially of the female candidates for trainee ski instructors. High correlations between the performance quality and result efficiency in mastering the skiing training ground point to a justified application of both systems for assessing skiing skills in ski instructors. Even though the expert assessment of motor skills is in general irreplaceable, obtained results also enable a different approach to assessment of ski instructors’ quality, which in the end exists in the competitive alpine skiing. Therefore, the cost-effectiveness and precision of testing the training ground performance with a temporal measure instead of judge assessment is reality and probably a promising future. However, it is recommended to select the “parallel” evaluation, which may in the end lead to creating high-quality time standards that can significantly improve the selection process in the education of ski instructors, but also in other populations belonging to the family of advanced alpine skiers