Direct Energy Conversion for Fast Reactors

Thermoelectric generators (TEG) are a well-established technology for compact low power output long-life applications. Solid state TEGs are the technology of choice for many space missions and have also been used in remote earth-based applications. Since TEGs have no moving parts and can be hermetically sealed, there is the potential for nuclear reactor power systems using TEGs to be safe, reliable and resistant to proliferation. Such power units would be constructed in a manner that would provide decades of maintenance-free operation, thereby minimizing the possibility of compromising the system during routine maintenance operations. It should be possible to construct an efficient direct energy conversion cascade from an appropriate combination of solid-state thermoelectric generators, with each stage in the cascade optimized for a particular range of temperature. Performance of cascaded thermoelectric devices could be further enhanced by exploitation of compositionally graded p-n couples, as well as radial elements to maximize utilization of the heat flux. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena has recently reported segmented unicouples that operate between 300 and 975 K and have conversion efficiencies of 15 percent [Caillat, 2000]. TEGs are used in nuclear-fueled power sources for space exploration, in power sources for the military, and in electrical generators on diesel engines. Second, there is a wide variety of TE materials applicable to a broad range of temperatures. New materials may lead to new TEG designs with improved thermoelectric properties (i.e. ZT approaching 3) and significantly higher efficiencies than in designs using currently available materials. Computational materials science (CMS) has made sufficient progress and there is promise for using these techniques to reduce the time and cost requirements to develop such new TE material combinations. Recent advances in CMS, coupled with increased computational power afforded by the Accelerated Strategic Computing Initiative (ASCI), should improve the speed and decrease the cost of developing new TEGs. The system concept to be evaluated is shown in Figure 1. Liquid metal is used to transport heat away from the nuclear heat source and to the TEG. Air or liquid (water or a liquid metal) is used to transport heat away from the cold side of the TEG. Typical reactor coolants include sodium or eutectic mixtures of lead-bismuth. These are coolants that have been used to cool fast neutron reactors. Heat from the liquid metal coolant is rejected through the thermal electric materials, thereby producing electrical power directly. The temperature gradient could extend from as high as 1300 K to 300 K, although fast reactor structural materials (including those used to clad the fuel) currently used limit the high temperature to about 825K