Leadership Strategies for Addressing Workplace Isolation in a Geographically Dispersed Workforce: A Systematic Review

Due technological advancements and the COVID-19 pandemic, organizations have widely accepted the role of a geographically dispersed workforce; however, such a workforce has been susceptible to isolation. Workplace isolation has become a rising concern in the management field; research has linked workplace isolation to employee performance, productivity, job satisfaction, organizational identity, turnover intentions, wellbeing, and mental health. Research has also revealed a difference between leading employees in a geographically dispersed environment and leading employees in a traditional setting, and has found leaders to be lacking the knowledge, strategies, and/or resources conducive for this environment. This dissertation was based on a systematic review methodology to conduct evidence-based research on leadership strategies to address workplace isolation in a geographically dispersed workforce by exploring the research question: What leadership strategies can be used to address workplace isolation in a geographically dispersed workforce? Social Exchange Theory was used as a conceptual lens to address this research question and theorized workplace isolation disrupted the reciprocity in social exchanges between a geographically dispersed workforce and leadership support. Following a systematic review process, 33 quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method studies were selected for this dissertation. The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool was used to critically assess each article. A qualitative coding approach was used as well as ATLAS.ti. Analysis identified three key findings centered on communication, performance management, and supportive and inclusive leadership strategies. First, leaders addressed workplace isolation through communication strategies that incorporated face-to-face interactions with consistent high-quality digital communication. Second, leaders addressed workplace isolation through performance management strategies that set goals, clearly defined job expectations, managed employee performance, provided regular tailored feedback, and recognized employees for their contributions to the organization. Third, leaders addressed workplace isolation through a supportive leadership approach that built trust, encouraged open dialogue, fostered inclusion, provided guidance and coaching, and promoted supportive informal and formal interactions. This dissertation concludes with recommendations for management as well as discusses limitations and areas for research.LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION i Leadership Strategies for Addressing Workplace Isolation in a Geographically Dispersed Workforce: A Systematic Review Dissertation submitted to the School of Business, University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Business Administration By Jessica Marie LaMoe December 2023 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Richard Milter Dr. James Gelatt Dr. Lisa Pearo Date of Oral Defense: 12/05/2023 LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION ii Abstract Title of Dissertation: LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION IN A GEOGRAPHICALLY DIPSERSED WORKFORCE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW Jessica Marie LaMoe, Doctor of Business Administration, 2023 Due technological advancements and the COVID-19 pandemic, organizations have widely accepted the role of a geographically dispersed workforce; however, such a workforce has been susceptible to isolation. Workplace isolation has become a rising concern in the management field; research has linked workplace isolation to employee performance, productivity, job satisfaction, organizational identity, turnover intentions, wellbeing, and mental health. Research has also revealed a difference between leading employees in a geographically dispersed environment and leading employees in a traditional setting, and has found leaders to be lacking the knowledge, strategies, and/or resources conducive for this environment. This dissertation was based on a systematic review methodology to conduct evidence-based research on leadership strategies to address workplace isolation in a geographically dispersed workforce by exploring the research question: What leadership strategies can be used to address workplace isolation in a geographically dispersed workforce? Social Exchange Theory was used as a conceptual lens to address this research question and theorized workplace isolation disrupted the reciprocity in social exchanges between a geographically dispersed workforce and leadership support. Following a systematic review process, 33 quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method studies were selected for this dissertation. The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool was used to critically assess each article. A qualitative coding approach was used as well as ATLAS.ti. Analysis identified three key findings centered on communication, performance management, and supportive and inclusive leadership strategies. First, leaders addressed LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION iii workplace isolation through communication strategies that incorporated face-to-face interactions with consistent high-quality digital communication. Second, leaders addressed workplace isolation through performance management strategies that set goals, clearly defined job expectations, managed employee performance, provided regular tailored feedback, and recognized employees for their contributions to the organization. Third, leaders addressed workplace isolation through a supportive leadership approach that built trust, encouraged open dialogue, fostered inclusion, provided guidance and coaching, and promoted supportive informal and formal interactions. This dissertation concludes with recommendations for management as well as discusses limitations and areas for research. Keywords: geographically dispersed workforce, leadership strategies, organizational outcomes, workplace isolation LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION iv © Copyright by Jessica Marie LaMoe 2023 LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION v Dedication I would like to dedicate this thesis to my parents, Steven and Victoria LaMoe, for fostering my love of education and research, and supporting me endlessly throughout this ambitious journey; my friends, for embracing my endeavor and providing laughter and motivation when I needed it the most; my cohort members, for encouraging as well as challenging me every step of the way, and for being one of my biggest support networks throughout this entire journey; my professors and mentors, for providing guidance and expertise to support my academic growth; and to anyone who loves education, and the importance education plays in creating a better tomorrow. This dissertation would not have been possible without the love, support, encouragement, and motivation of all these individuals. I am beyond thankful for the role every one of you played in my academic pursuits. LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION vi Acknowledgements I am beyond grateful I started and completed this journey, and I would like to acknowledge those who played a significant role along the way. To my parents, thank you for the countless hours spent discussing my research and progress in the program. You have always been my biggest supporters. To my friends, thank you for the motivation to Keep a-Goin’ and fulfill this dream. Your motivational words and comedic relief were instrumental in my success. Thank you to both my family and friends for understanding my research and laptop were additional attendees for any holiday, vacation, etc. over the past several years. To my DBA cohort, it has been a pleasure learning and growing as scholars with all of you. Thank you for the countless study sessions and guidance throughout this program. I could not imagine a better group of individuals to embark and finish this journey with. To my dissertation chair, Dr. Richard Milter, it has been a wonderful year working with you to make this dream a reality. LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION vii Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ ii Dedication .................................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... vi Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1: An Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ....................................... 1 Background and Overview ........................................................................................................ 1 Workplace Isolation Defined .................................................................................................. 2 Workplace Isolation and Work Environment .......................................................................... 2 Workplace Isolation, Profession, and Industry ....................................................................... 3 Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem ................................................................ 4 The Rise of Flexible Work Arrangements and a Geographically Dispersed Workforce ......... 5 Challenges of a Geographically Dispersed Workforce and Workplace Isolation ................... 6 Leading a Geographically Dispersed Workforce ................................................................... 7 Dissertation Purpose and Research Question .......................................................................... 8 Dissertation Rationale and Significance .................................................................................... 9 Definitions and Terminology .................................................................................................... 10 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................... 11 Dissertation Organization ........................................................................................................ 12 Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ........................................... 13 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................ 13 Social Exchange Theory Origin and Key Constructs ........................................................... 14 Social Exchange Theory in the Workplace .......................................................................... 15 Social Exchange Theory and Workplace Isolation .............................................................. 16 Scoping Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 17 Defining Workplace Isolation ............................................................................................... 17 Measuring Workplace Isolation ............................................................................................ 19 Antecedents, Mediators, Moderators, and Outcomes of Workplace Isolation ..................... 20 Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................... 27 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................... 30 Chapter 3: Method ...................................................................................................................... 31 Review Design and Methodology ............................................................................................ 31 Systematic Reviews ............................................................................................................. 31 Systematic Review Process ................................................................................................ 32 Review Question and Methodology ..................................................................................... 34 Search Strategy ................................................................................................................... 35 Method of Quality Appraisal of the Included Studies ........................................................... 42 PRISMA Diagram ................................................................................................................ 44 Analysis and Synthesis Methodology ...................................................................................... 46 Coding Process ................................................................................................................... 46 GRADE-CERQual ................................................................................................................ 47 Subject Matter Experts ............................................................................................................ 47 LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION viii Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................... 48 Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ............................................................................................... 49 Review of the Research Question and Management Problem ................................................ 49 Description of the Data Set ..................................................................................................... 50 Results of the Critical Appraisal of the Data Set ...................................................................... 51 Coding Process Applied to Systematic Review Articles .......................................................... 52 Findings and Discussion ......................................................................................................... 52 Finding 1: High Quality and Frequent Communication ........................................................ 53 Finding 2: Well-defined and Regularly Executed Performance Management ..................... 59 Finding 3: Supportive and Inclusive Leadership .................................................................. 65 GRADE-CERQual Applied to Systematic Review Findings .................................................... 71 Summary of Findings .............................................................................................................. 71 Revised Conceptual Model/Framework .................................................................................. 72 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................... 74 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations ......................................................................... 75 Review of the Research .......................................................................................................... 75 Significance of the Problem ................................................................................................. 75 Dissertation Purpose and Research Question ..................................................................... 75 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................ 76 Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 76 Addressing the Research Question ......................................................................................... 76 Recommendations for Management ....................................................................................... 77 Communication-Based Recommendations ......................................................................... 77 Performance Management-Based Recommendations ........................................................ 80 Supportive and Inclusive Leadership-Based Recommendations ........................................ 83 Limitations and Areas for Future Research ............................................................................. 84 Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 84 Areas for Future Research .................................................................................................. 85 Final Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................................. 86 References ................................................................................................................................. 88 Appendix A ............................................................................................................................... 103 Appendix B ............................................................................................................................... 104 Appendix C ............................................................................................................................... 105 Appendix D ............................................................................................................................... 106 Appendix E ............................................................................................................................... 109 LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION ix List of Tables Table 1 CIMO Model used to develop research question ............ Error! Bookmark not defined. Table 2 Research terms from the research question and their variation and synonyms ........... 36 Table 3 Search strings and rationale for serach string formation Error! Bookmark not defined. Table 4 Inclusion and exclusion criteria criteria of reviewed articles for consideration in systematic review .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. Table 5 Search strings used to address research question and database results .................... 40 Table 6 Description of data set by publication year, publicatoin country, number of auhtors, publication subject area and category, and study type ............................................................... 50 Table 7 Finding, category, and code totals ................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.2 Table 8 Finding 1 to categories to codes relationship ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.4 Table 9 Finding 2 to categories to codes relationship ................................................................ 59 Table 10 Finding 3 to categories to codes relationship .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.5 LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION x List of Figures Figure 1 Conceptual framework of Social Exchange Theory applied to workplace isolation ...... 29 Figure 2 PRISMA diagram detailing phases for article indentification, screening, eligibilty, inclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 45 Figure 3 Revised conceptual framework of Social Exchange Theory applied to workplace isolation ...................................................................................................................................... 74 LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES ADDRESSING WORKPLACE ISOLATION 1 Chapter 1: An Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem A systematic review process was conducted to provide evidence-based research on workplace isolation experienced by a geographically dispersed workforce and how leadership strategies addressed workplace isolation within this context. The results of this systematic review are discussed in the following five chapters, starting with Chapter 1, an introduction and overview of the management problem. This chapter consists of seven sections. The first section, background and overview, provides a synopsis of workplace isolation to include how literature defined the concept, how workplace isolation related to various work environments, and how research explored workplace isolation across professions and industries. The second section, problem statement and significance of the problem, introduces workplace isolation as a rising concern within the management field. The third section, dissertation purpose and research question, introduces the research question: What leadership strategies can be used to address workplace isolation in a geographically dispersed workforce? The fourth section, dissertation rationale, highlights the various gaps in research surrounding workplace isolation which provided the rationale for this dissertation. The fifth section, definitions and terminology, introduces the terms used operationally in this dissertation. The sixth section, chapter summary, and final section, dissertation organization, provide a high-level overview of Chapter 1 and the overall dissertation chapters, respectively. Background and Overview An overview and background on workplace isolation revealed how researchers defined workplace isolation as well as in which work contexts, industries, and professions