Brain drain: The role of organizational support in reducing the migration of skilled labor from the English-speaking Caribbean

Brain drain is a global phenomenon that can undermine the economies of both developed and developing countries. Brain drain refers to the migration of skilled workers from their homelands to reside in other countries in search of better employment opportunities and a higher standard of living. Research shows that among regions affected by brain drain, the English-speaking Caribbean (ESC) is ranked among the highest in the world. Brain drain has impeded the ability of ESC firms to recruit and retain skilled workers and, hence, to maintain their global competitiveness. This author argues that by not providing adequate organizational support, ESC managers and policy makers are contributing to brain drain. Based on a systematic review and realist synthesis of 56 studies, this study found that ESC managers and policy makers have not provided the amount of organizational support necessary to enhance their employees’ commitment to the firm in order to reduce turnover and brain drain. This study identifies interventions that managers and policy makers in the ESC could implement to alleviate brain drain. This study found that although financial constraints preclude the implementation of some strategies, there are non-financial interventions such as collaboration between the public and private sectors, and mentoring, that ESC managers and policy makers can employ to mitigate the impact of brain drain in the region.Running head: ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT AND BRAIN DRAIN IN THE CARIBBEAN Brain Drain: The Role of Organizational Support in Reducing the Migration of Skilled Labor from the English-speaking Caribbean Louis Melbourne A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College In Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management Dr. Laura Witz and Dr. Nicholas H. Allen April 11, 2016 BRAIN DRAIN IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING CARIBBEAN 2 Abstract Brain drain is a global phenomenon that can undermine the economies of both developed and developing countries. Brain drain refers to the migration of skilled workers from their homelands to reside in other countries in search of better employment opportunities and a higher standard of living. Research shows that among regions affected by brain drain, the English-speaking Caribbean (ESC) is ranked among the highest in the world. Brain drain has impeded the ability of ESC firms to recruit and retain skilled workers and, hence, to maintain their global competitiveness. This author argues that by not providing adequate organizational support, ESC managers and policy makers are contributing to brain drain. Based on a systematic review and realist synthesis of 56 studies, this study found that ESC managers and policy makers have not provided the amount of organizational support necessary to enhance their employees’ commitment to the firm in order to reduce turnover and brain drain. This study identifies interventions that managers and policy makers in the ESC could implement to alleviate brain drain. This study found that although financial constraints preclude the implementation of some strategies, there are non-financial interventions such as collaboration between the public and private sectors, and mentoring, that ESC managers and policy makers can employ to mitigate the impact of brain drain in the region. Keywords: Brain drain, brain gain, English-speaking Caribbean, organizational commitment, organizational support, perceived organizational support, postcolonialism, skilled labor, turnover BRAIN DRAIN IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING CARIBBEAN 3 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, Leonell and Phyllis Melbourne, who made the very difficult decision to uproot their lives in Jamaica and migrate to the United States to give my siblings (Sandra and Keith) and I a better opportunity to achieve our full potential. BRAIN DRAIN IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING CARIBBEAN 4 Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge several individuals, without whose selfless sacrifices, this dissertation and my journey through the Doctor of Management (DM) program at the University of Maryland University College could not have been completed. First, to my wife, Heather, I express my most sincere gratitude and appreciation for your endless love and unwavering support as I spent countless hours away from you pursuing my dream. I am in awe at the amount of patience and understanding you demonstrated when I was unable to fulfill my responsibilities to you and our children. I also truly appreciate your gentle words of reassurance whenever I felt discouraged. Thank you!! To my children, Craig and Anyssa. Although you are both adults and do not “need” me as much, I nonetheless want to thank you for your understanding when I had assignments due and could not be there for you. Thank you for all the times you encouraged me to keep pushing. Your comments such as “I’m proud of you, Dad!” meant so much to me! It was because of my desire not to disappoint you why my failure to finish this journey was not an option. I am so proud of the wonderful human beings you have become, and of what you have both accomplished academically and professionally! To my parents, Leonell and Phyllis Melbourne, thank you for instilling in me the value of an education. I would not be the person I am today, nor would I have reached the pinnacle of my academic career without your love and support. To my cohort members, Sharon Crawford and Donald Roomes, I cannot say enough how much I appreciate your support, friendship, and the knowledge you shared. I am going to miss the flurry of emails we exchanged as we tried to figure out the directives of an assignment or the BRAIN DRAIN IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING CARIBBEAN 5 objectives of our professors. To my other colleagues in the DM program, thank you for your show of support. I owe a depth of gratitude to my dissertation advisors, Dr. Laura Witz and Dr. Nicholas Allen. Thank you for skillfully guiding me through the oftentimes confounding process of writing a dissertation. I would also like to thank you for your words of encouragement. I can now say, in hindsight, that I appreciate not only your tender nudges but also the not-so-subtle pushes when I needed to make progress. I could not have asked for more understanding, competent dissertation advisors. To my Subject Matter Experts, thank you for taking the time to review my work and for providing your valuable input. I promised you anonymity as a condition of you offering your service but you know who you are. Finally, to my colleagues at Florida International University, thank you! In particular, I thank Dr. Doreen Gooden; you supported my endeavor from the very beginning and were always there to lift me up. To Drs. Jerry Haar, William Newburry, and Dileep Rao, and Ms. Rosa Garcia, thank you for your guidance and support. BRAIN DRAIN IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING CARIBBEAN 6 Table of Contents Abstract .....................................................................................................................................2 Dedication ..................................................................................................................................3 Acknowledgements .....................................................................................................................4 Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................6 List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... 15 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ 16 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 17 Background ............................................................................................................................... 17 Significance and Magnitude of the Problem in the English-speaking Caribbean (ESC) .............. 20 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 21 Implications for ESC Managers and Policy Makers ................................................................... 22 Implications for Private Sector Managers ...................................................................... 22 Implications for Policy Makers ...................................................................................... 23 Propositions and Research Question .......................................................................................... 24 Propositions ................................................................................................................... 24 Research Question ......................................................................................................... 25 Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................................ 27 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 28 Key Variables, Terms, and Concepts ......................................................................................... 28 “Organization” .............................................................................................................. 28 Organizational Support (OS) ......................................................................................... 29 Definition of OS................................................................................................. 29 BRAIN DRAIN IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING CARIBBEAN 7 Classifying OS strategies.................................................................................... 30 Perceived Organizational Support .................................................................................. 33 Organizational Commitment .......................................................................................... 35 Types of OC....................................................................................................... 36 Relationships among OS, POS, Job Satisfaction, OC, and Turnover .............................. 36 Job satisfaction. .................................................................................................. 37 OC and turnover. ................................................................................................ 37 OS, POS, OC, and turnover. ............................................................................... 38 Brain Drain .................................................................................................................... 39 “Pull factors” versus “push factors.”................................................................... 40 Skills ............................................................................................................................. 41 Attitude ......................................................................................................................... 42 Attitude, behavior, and affective commitment. ................................................... 43 Conditions in the ESC ............................................................................................................... 43 Organizational Support in the ESC ................................................................................ 43 Working conditions. ........................................................................................... 44 Human resource practices. ................................................................................. 45 Low wages ......................................................................................................... 47 Collaborative efforts. ......................................................................................... 48 Alternative employment opportunities. ............................................................... 48 Brain Drain in the ESC .................................................................................................. 49 Impact of brain drain on labor. ........................................................................... 50 Impact of immigration policies on brain drain. ................................................... 51 BRAIN DRAIN IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING CARIBBEAN 8 Brain drain, brain gain, and the impact of remittances. ....................................... 52 Brain drain and publicly-funded education. ........................................................ 54 Skills Imbalance ............................................................................................................ 55 Managerial Attitudes in the ESC .................................................................................... 56 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 59 Postcolonialism and Postcolonial Theory ....................................................................... 59 Postcolonialism. ................................................................................................. 59 Postcolonial theory. ............................................................................................ 60 Hybridity ....................................................................................................................... 61 Hybridity relative to PCT. .................................................................................. 62 Social Exchange Theory ................................................................................................ 63 Conceptual Model ..................................................................................................................... 64 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 68 Evidence-based Research Synthesis and Evidence-Based Management ..................................... 68 Evidence-based Research Synthesis ............................................................................... 68 EBRS versus traditional literature reviews. ........................................................ 68 Reduction of subjectivity and availability bias. ....................................... 69 Reduction of unreliability. ...................................................................... 69 Bridging the knowledge and use gap. ...................................................... 69 Use of diversified data sources. .............................................................. 70 Facilitation of replicability. ..................................................................... 71 Evidence-based Management......................................................................................... 71 Elements of EBMgt. ........................................................................................... 72 BRAIN DRAIN IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING CARIBBEAN 9 Practitioner judgment and stakeholder viewpoints. ................................. 72 Local context. ......................................................................................... 72 Best available evidence. .......................................................................... 73 Systematic Reviews .................................................................................................................. 73 Aggregative versus Configurative Reviews .................................................................... 75 Stages in the Systematic Review Process ....................................................................... 76 Review initiation. ............................................................................................... 79 Review question and methodology. .................................................................... 79 Search strategy. .................................................................................................. 80 Database searches, search terms, and keywords. ..................................... 80 Search strings. ........................................................................................ 82 Inclusion and exclusion criteria............................................................... 83 Search results. ........................................................................................ 86 Quality and relevance assessment. ...................................................................... 89 TAPUPAS+v. ......................................................................................... 89 TAPUPAS+v rating scale. ........................................................... 91 Coding process. .................................................................................................. 95 A priori coding. ...................................................................................... 95 Coding software. .................................................................................... 99 Data extraction and coding. .................................................................... 99 A posteriori coding. .............................................................................. 101 Synthesizing the data........................................................................................ 105 Rationale for using realist synthesis. ..................................................... 105 BRAIN DRAIN IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING CARIBBEAN 10 Using reviews. ................................................................................................. 105 Subject Matter Experts ............................................................................................................ 106 SME Feedback Solicitation and Retrieval Protocol ...................................................... 106 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................... 107 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 109 Study Characteristics ............................................................................................................... 109 Geographic Characteristics .......................................................................................... 109 Methodological Characteristics .................................................................................... 110 Findings ................................................................................................................................. 110 Group 1: Firm-level Strategies ..................................................................................... 110 Instrumental OS strategies. ............................................................................... 111 Skills and training. ................................................................................ 112 Working conditions. ............................................................................. 113 Mentoring. ............................................................................................ 113 Appraisal OS strategies. ................................................................................... 114 Wages and compensation. ..................................................................... 115 Micro-level bonding. ............................................................................ 116 Social OS strategies. ........................................................................................ 116 Supervisor support. ............................................................................... 116 Empowerment and decision-making authority. ..................................... 117 Targeting “non-captives.” ..................................................................... 118 Informational OS strategies. ............................................................................. 119 Group 2: National/Policy-level Strategies .................................................................... 120 BRAIN DRAIN IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING CARIBBEAN 11 Immigration policies. ....................................................................................... 121 International agreements. ...................................................................... 121 Compensation for skilled labor. ................................................. 121 Temporary migration. ............................................................... 122 Return migration................................................................................... 123 Diaspora engagement. ............................................................... 124 International recruitment....................................................................... 125 Other immigration interventions. .......................................................... 126 Macro-level bonding. ................................................................ 126 Immigration restrictions. ........................................................... 126 Managed migration. .................................................................. 126 Education policies. ........................................................................................... 127 Public/private collaboration. ................................................................. 127 Training programs. ............................................................................... 128 Vocational technical education. .........................................