Fortifications in and Around Rome, 950–300 BC

Defensive systems of main settlements in the region around Rome are diverse during the period 950 to 300 BC. They consist originally of natural defences in the form of steep hillsides, trenches as well as monumental earthworks with or without stone walls. Often an efficient combination of fortification works is recorded to prevent the construction of full-blown artificial battlements around the entire settlement with sizes up to 200 hectares. Rome is the exception because it became within its fortification at least twice as large as its Etruscan peers around 600-550 BC. The beginning of the construction of full-size city walls with rectangular stones is disputed. They became more common from the 6th century BC onwards. The full circuit, retaining walls made of massive polygon stones, expands the number of options for battlements but seem hardly constructed any longer after the 3rd century BC. Some issues regarding concepts of fortification in central Italy are reviewed. The paper presents cases of fortifications at main sites around Rome such as Veii, Ardea and Crustumerium revealing that concepts of defences were frequently modified once the perimeter of a proto-urban/urban settlement was established. These cases are subsequently integrated to address the long-standing debate on Rome’s Esquiline agger and an argument on the rise of the Roman state.