Minimizing delays in feedback improves performance: Left: Delays increase the time to detection of outbreaks and limit how aggressive policy responses can be.

The top figure shows the response to an outbreak on day zero (100 exposed individuals). Under feedback with 14 days of delay (blue), the case load as a result of the outbreak is ∫IT(t)dt = 2022, compared to ∫IT(t)dt = 406 for feedback with two days of delay (yellow). The bottom figure shows the corresponding interventions. Reducing the delay also reduces the cumulative interventions required to control the outbreak by 6.7%. Right: The update frequency for interventions needs to be appropriate. When interventions are implemented with daily updates (yellow, as in the left panels), weekly updates (dotted) or updates every two weeks (dash-dotted), we observe similar levels of pandemic control. Updates to interventions every four weeks (dashed) introduce too much delay and cause oscillations.