Embryonic and fetal mortality in river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

River buffalo are able to adapt to diverse climatic zones and are widespread globally. The resource use efficiency of buffalo is highly relevant in a resource-constrained world and the increasing requirement to produce more food. Buffalo clearly have an important role in meeting the growing demand for animal protein. In the Mediterranean and higher latitudes, buffalo show annual cycles of ovarian activity, embryonic development, and pregnancy rate. In buffalo, the CL starts to develop early in the cycle, and there is also an early increase in concentrations of progesterone (P4) in circulation. This appears to be necessary for optimal embryonic development. The failure to establish a pregnancy in buffalo can occur before Day 21 (early embryonic mortality), from Day 21 to 45 (late embryonic mortality), and from Day 46 to 90 (fetal mortality) after mating. Treatment with P4, hCG, and GnRH on Day 5 after mating increases P4 in circulation and reduces early embryonic mortality in circumstances where concentrations of P4 are relatively low. The same treatments applied on Day 20 to 25 after mating can lower the occurrence of late embryonic mortality and fetal mortality