Lizards as model organisms of sex chromosome evolution: What we really know from a systematic distribution of available data?

Lizards represent unique model organisms in the study of sex determination and sex chromosome evolution. Among tetrapods, they are characterized by an unparalleled diversity of sex determination systems, including temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) and genetic sex determination (GSD) under either male or female heterogamety. Sex chromosome systems are also extremely variable in lizards. They include simple (XY and ZW) and multiple (X1X2Y and Z1Z2W) sex chromosome systems and encompass all the different hypothesized stages of diversification of heterogametic chromosomes, from homomorphic to heteromorphic and completely heterochromatic sex chromosomes. The co-occurrence of TSD, GSD and different sex chromosome systems also characterizes different lizard taxa, which represent ideal models to study the emergence and the evolutionary drivers of sex reversal and sex chromosome turnover. In this review, we present a synthesis of general genome and karyotype features of non-snakes squamates and discuss the main theories and evidences on the evolution and diversification of their different sex determination and sex chromosome systems. We here provide a systematic assessment of the available data on lizard sex chromosome systems and an overview of the main cytogenetic and molecular methods used for their identification, using a qualitative and quantitative approach