Molecular genetic analysis of cerebral cavernous malformations: An update

Cerebral cavernous malformations (CCM) can occur either as sporadic or familial form with autosomal dominant inheritance. Three CCM genes have been identified: CCM1 (KRIT1), CCM2 (MGC4607), and CCM3 (PDCD10). In this review, we provide an overall update on genetics of cerebral cavernous malformations. We discuss the main features of these three genes and provide an updated listing of the mutations identified so far. Most of them lead to a premature stop codon regardless of the nature of the variation, including nonsense mutations, small deletions/insertions, and intronic/exonic substitutions causing an altered splicing and a frame-shift. In addition, deletions or duplications of one or more exons of CCM genes can be responsible for the disease. We examine the use of different mutation screening methods to identify all these mutations, providing a comprehensive approach to CCM genetic diagnosis. We also report the main strategies to evaluate the actual impact of the mutations on the protein function. Moreover, we recapitulate the available data on penetrance, phenotype-genotype correlations, and founder effect. Finally, we discuss the main aspects of genetic counseling, including genetic risk assessment in family members, in sporadic patients with multiple CCMs, and in the case of de novo mutations