Direct and market governance paths for the creation of an EU political identity: cultural heritage policy

Cultural heritage has a dual nature: it is pursued for non-economic purposes; but it also forms part of economic markets. Indeed, the European Commission has pursued two sets of policies in cultural heritage: activities to directly develop an EU identity, which parallel processes seen in nation building in Europe; governing cultural heritage markets. The article argues that both can contribute to the creation of an EU policy identity and compares them through two subcases: EU creation of public symbols and labels; regulation of cross-border trade in artistic objects. It argues that although the first developed earlier and enjoyed an expansion of treaty powers, it has been marked by important limitations in terms of definitions of values and differentiation from other European identities. The second has seen a gradual development of specific EU values and definitions that are differentiated from those of other polities through cultural exceptions to general rules of EU markets or their adaptation. The conclusion points to a different path of political identity creation than that suggested by studies of cultural nationalism for nineteenth-century European nation states, one that is related to the EU as a market maker and shaper