A journey towards mathematics. Effects of remedial education on early numeracy

Mathematical proficiency is one of the most important core targets in primary education. Early numeracy in kindergarten is one of the key targets for early identification of children at-risk for math learning difficulties. For most children, learning early numeracy skills is a natural process that is guided by (in)formal learning in the home and kindergarten environments. The research in this dissertation focuses on children whose early numeracy abilities do not develop spontaneously while following the regular kindergarten curriculum, and therefore tend to remain behind throughout their schooling. The overall aim of this dissertation was to provide new evidence about the importance of early numeracy in the early school career of children. In order to so, this dissertation includes studies aiming to examine low early levels of numeracy as an important precursor of delayed or disturbed mathematical development, to identify several predictors in early numeracy learning and to test the effect of remedial intervention for children lagging behind in early numeracy. Integrating the results of all studies together, three main conclusions can be drawn. The first conclusion is that early numeracy is an integral part of the developmental route towards mathematics and therefore is an important, whether or not the most important, predictor of which children will experience difficulties in learning mathematical abilities during primary school. The second conclusion is that there are several predictors, or underlying factors, involved in the development of early numeracy in weak performing kindergartners. The development of early numeracy in those children is facilitated by verbal working memory, symbolic comparison skills and specific math language. The third conclusion is that remedial intervention during kindergarten is beneficial for young children who may be at risk of having math difficulties. Ideally, the provision of adequate assistance starting halfway the first year of kindergarten can assist children in reaching an acceptable level of early numeracy when starting formal math education in the first grad