Wheel tread damage leading to high magnitudes of vertical wheel–rail contact forces is a major cause of train delays in the Swedish railway network, in particular during the coldest months of the year. According to regulations, vehicles generating contact forces exceeding the limit value for allowed wheel–rail impact loads must be taken out of service for wheel maintenance. This may lead to severe traffic disruptions and higher costs. Increased wheel‒rail impact loads also cause elevated stress levels in wheels, axles and bearings and may shorten the life of track components, resulting in higher costs for vehicle and track maintenance. Wheel tread irregularities also lead to increased levels of rolling noise, impact noise and ground-borne v...