'The Devil and the deep Blue Sea': European integration, national identity and foreign policy in post-communist Estonia

The two themes of 'national self-assertion' and 'Europeanization' (or 'Return to Europe') have been at the very centre of identity debates in Central and Eastern Europe following the collapse of communist regimes in the region. The meanings and practices associated with these themes - and the relationship between them - have changed significantly within the context of Estonia's post-communist foreign policy. Three distinct, if overlapping, phases in Estonia's 'Return to Europe' during 1990-2002 can be identified: the achievement of international recognition of independence; the consolidation of state sovereignty through the withdrawal of former Soviet troops; and - after 1994 - a 'Europeanization' of foreign policy whereby Estonia has been required to prove its European credentials through its ability to relate to Russia. With EU membership pursued by governments, Estonian society has, for various reasons, recently manifested heightened levels of Euroscepticism, seen by some as indicative of an 'identity crisis' within Estonian society