Capacity development for environmental protection: towards better performing environmental impact assessment systems in low and middle income countries

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a legal tool used to support government decisions on projects that could harm the environment. It is applied to such decisions, to study the possible environmental impacts of the proposed project and any mitigating measures necessary to minimize them. In the EIA process a number of activities are implemented consecutively, generally in three phases: pre-EIA, EIA, and EIA follow-up. EIA is typically mandatory for projects such as the exploitation or extension of a quarry, the processing of ores, the exploration and exploitation of oil and gas, oil refineries, the development of hydropower dames on EIA in low and middle income countries (LMCs). According to the World Bank’s 2015 classification, low income countries have a Gross National Income (GNI) of maximum US$ 1,025 per capita, whereas the GNI for middle income countries is between US$ 1,025 and 12,475. EIA is currently mandatory in nearly all LMCs and, in many cases, has been so for 15-25 years. Despite the experience gained and extensive capacity development support by international donors such as the World Bank, the performance of EIA in LMCs is considered to range from low to moderate, although differences between countries exist. This means that EIA contributes to environmental protection only modestly, for instance by ensuring that the projects for which EIA is mandatory meet the minimum environmental standards prescribed by legislation. The performance of EIA in LMCs also seems to be lower than in high income countries. The literature does not clearly indicate which factors explain the poor performance of EIA in LMCs and to what extent these factors are context-specific. This thesis therefore aimed to provide a better understanding of these factors and their dependence on context, in order to provide better guidance for capacity development that contributes to improved performance of EIA in these countries. The thesis focuses on national EIA systems (defined as an association of actors involved in EIA, each with their own capacities and often opposing interests), and also on “the rules of the game” that have been set in the EIA regulatory framework. Empirical research has been conducted in three LMCs: Ghana, Georgia, and Yemen