Developing adolescent sexuality in context: Relations with parents and peers

In this dissertation it was investigated how various aspects of adolescents’ developing sexuality (behaviors, cognitions, emotions) are intertwined over time with adolescents’ relations with parents and peers. The overall goal of the six empirical studies, which utilized a multi-method approach (longitudinal questionnaire, observation, and meta-analytic data), was to investigate adolescents’ sexual development with 1.) a broad conceptualization of adolescent sexuality, 2.) specific attention for socio-contextual factors (parents and peers), and 3.) a longitudinal research design. The results of this dissertation showed that, when assessing various biopsychosocial factors simultaneously, the timing of adolescents’ sexual debut was related most strongly to their relations with peers. More frequent interaction with peers was associated with a higher likelihood of early sexual initiation (before the age of 16) for boys and girls. Experienced peer pressure to have sex was an additional risk factor for an early sexual debut for girls. Furthermore, both general and sexuality-specific aspects of adolescents’ relations with parents were related over time to developing adolescent sexuality. General parenting, in the form of a high-quality relationship with parents, had both direct (unidirectional) and indirect (through global self-esteem) protective effects on various aspects of adolescent sexuality, such as their intention to have sex, their actual sexual behavior, and their experienced sexual emotions. Sexuality-specific parenting, in the form of communication about sex and parental attitudes toward having sex, was more dynamically (bidirectionally) intertwined with adolescents’ increasing sexual experience. Besides the link between more frequent peer interactions and early sexual initiation, adolescents who perceived their peers as (a) more sexually active (descriptive norms), (b) more approving of having sex (injunctive norms), and (c) exerting more pressure on them to be sexually active (peer pressure) tended to be more sexually active themselves. Adolescents who believed that their friends approved more of having sex also reported more intention to have sex, and adolescents who believed that their peers engaged in more risky sexual behavior (descriptive risk norms) were more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior themselves. Adolescents’ perceptions of descriptive and injunctive sexual peer norms were related to the amount of normative and deviant talk and reinforcement thereof during conversations about sexuality-related topics with their friends. Finally, sexuality-specific parenting (frequent sexual communication) moderated (reduced or buffered) the over-time effects of descriptive sexual peer norms and peer pressure on adolescents’ intention to have sex. Overall, this dissertation shows that various aspects of adolescents’ relations with parents and peers are associated over time with various aspects of their emerging sexuality (behaviors, cognitions, emotions), and in various ways. Surprisingly few gender differences were found in the relations between the investigated factors and adolescent sexuality, suggesting that the underlying mechanisms operated similarly for boys and girls. The findings form a valuable contribution to the existing knowledge about how normative, risky, and positive adolescent sexuality develops in the context of relations with parents and peers. The results also contain relevant implications for educational and parental strategies that aim to promote healthy and positive sexual development during adolescence