Onderwijzen voor een natuurbetrokken bestaan : didactische uitgangspunten voor natuur- en milieueducatie

This study is aimed at making a contribution toward the didactic development of Environmental Education (EE).The issue under question is as follows (Part I): Which criteria govern commitment-oriented EE learning processes? To answer this question a number of theories were studied (Part II) and the practical experiences of several EE tutors evaluated (Part III). Then comparisons were made between the results (Part IV). The outcome of the comparison consists of several didactical clues for the didactics of EE learning processes. A brief description of the content of the different parts is given below.Part I: Underlying principles, issues and research questionsThe emergence of nature and environmental education is strongly linked to society's increased concern about the deterioration of nature and the environment. The introduction of EE in schools is believed to contribute toward solving the existing problems of the environment by teaching children to behave in a more environmental-friendly way. In this study we distance ourselves from this one-sided instrumental view. We perceive a form of education which transforms students into active participants in an ever-changing society. It demands a critical attitude and the willingness to shoulder joint responsibility. It does not include the provision of codes of behaviour. With this perception of education we see EE's primary objective as being man's commitment to nature.Someone committed to nature is taken to mean:a person prepared to and capable of weighing up the pros and cons of the interests of nature, against personal interests and society's interests;;a person who understands nature and the value of the environment for our mental and material well-being;a person who understands and values nature as the bearer of all life; anda person who is willing to personally take on the responsibility for nature and whose deeds give shape to this responsibility.Part II: The cornerstone of this studyThe question now arises as to how we plan to fulfil the primary objective mentioned above. To answer this question we have steered our study by several social constructivist theories that would give us more insight into a number of aspects regarding the didactics of EE. These theories are:the cultural historic theory, as introduced by Vygotskij (1987) and further developed by a few kindred spirits. This theory provides us with clues about how the shaping of meaningful, usable concepts can take place;the structuration theory, as developed by Giddens (1985). This theory clearly explains the freedom of action individuals have within the social structure in which they live. It then becomes clearer to see to which extent education contributes to development of the relative freedom of action of the individual;the human valuation theory , as developed by Hermans (1981). This theory contributes to our insight into the nature of our valuation and the manner in which it develops;the 'Bildung' theory (a human development approach) of Klafki (1994). This theory consists of a number of important points of departure for the didactics of education aimed at emancipation of the individual to actively participate in the community.Some relevant insights gleaned from these theories are summarised as follows:Man's actions are the result of structural and intentional powers. In educational situations we aim primarily at development of the intention of actions. Intentional actions are created by personally shaping societal practices in a fresh and unique manner. When giving new form to reality our interpretation of reality is tested against that of the surroundings. Reaction of the surroundings to our actions adjusts, refines and consolidates our knowledge. Learning should therefore be understood as the internalising of a socio-cultural dialogue.Knowledge consists of affective as well as cognitive elements. On the affective side are two fundamental motives , namely the motive of self-determination and self-submission. Our involvement in the world about us is based on these two fundamental motives and is especially stable if based on both of the motives.Learning must also be understood as a longitudinally genetic process in which continuous, gradual changes occur in a human being's potential to act. This view of learning implies a constant linking of the known with the unknown , of existing knowledge with new knowledge or of experiences gained with new experiences.Learning is characterised by the interiorisation of knowledge. At the end of such an interiorising process the knowledge is added to the repertoire of actions of the person concerned, developing into a fully-fledged mental potential to act.Besides social testing personal opinion is an essential component of the interiorising process. Both foreknowledge and appreciation play a dominant role in the formation of personal opinion.Learning must first take place in the zone of proximal development, which implies that students gain insights that they can and want to develop, but those that they cannot make completely and independently their own. It is the task of the teacher to organise and guard this activity.In education personal and social interests need to be weighed up against each other. Here, the young human being stands central as a full member of a democratic society in which self-determination, joint-decision and solidarity are significant and main objectives within which other educational aims must fit.Exemplary themes are required to be included in the curriculum that are clearly related to key social problems (such as the environment, war and peace and medical-ethical issues) as well as linked to specific socio-cultural themes (like religion, economy and science).Part III: The field researchThe field research involved a search for tutors' practical insights into the didactics of EE learning processes. These insights were gathered in two series of field research. Series I consisted of: (1) in-depth research among EE tutors; (2) development research on environment-oriented lesson material; and (3) research conducted at a study conference of environment coordinators. Series II consisted of : (4) an inventory of tutors' opinions of various different agricultural schools; and (5) development research on agricultural education at school level. The results of these two series were combined to provide a practical image of EE didactics. The most important insights gained from this practical research were:At the core of EE learning processes is knowledge that:is shaped in a process of personal processing ;contains the development of comprehension as well as commitment ;leads to the development of self-endorsed values ;goes hand-in-hand with feelings of care and responsibility;is close to reality of the learning state;is studied from different angles ;constantly needs to be judged on its merits time and time again ; andincludes ecological aspects as a permanent component should the content of the lesson require it.The learning process must preferably:give the highest priority to development of the person ;take place in an open and pluriform environment for learning ;assume a hopeful perspective;be geared to the individual tutor's capabilities and that of the individual student;offer room for development and unpredictable learned questioning;deal with value-laden subjects carefully, but not avoid them;take place in safe, convivially studious surroundings ;allow room for dialogue as essential part of the learning process, andfollow up /make use of positive (nature) experiences.pay attention to caring activities.Part IV: Toward didactics for meaningful EEIn this part the results of the theory studied (Part II) and the practical research carried out (Part III) are combined to form a comprehensive picture of didactic points of departure for EE learning processes (Part IV). This image can be divided into two main categories of didactics, namely personal closeness and exemplarity, which are further elaborated into several leading principles and didactic criteria. The main categories are briefly explained below.Personal closenessIn learning processes personal closeness is characterised by the student's active approval of the content and objective of the learning process. Furthermore, much attention must be paid to the meaning that the student personally attaches to the content of the lesson. Focusing attention on personal significance is not really the issue. If the content of the lesson needs to be usable, it should also be placed in a social context. By sharing of meanings with others and by reflection on the social consequences of a specific information, knowledge becomes socially integrated and can be expressed within social reality.ExemplarityIn exemplary learning processes it is true that the educational learning process begins within a certain context, but subsequently requires extension of the scholar's application. Examples that are recognisably linked with practice are the most suitable. Although the educational learning process first aims at the concrete context, the comprehension of the scholar must also be made abstract and the scholar must then be tested in a new concrete situation. For the quality of the educational learning process therefore, going back and forth several times between concretisation and abstraction would appear to be important. To increase the transferability and the flexibility of knowledge we must not only move between the concrete and the abstract, but also must observe a subject from different interest perspectives and apply it in various different contexts . Moreover, what needs to be sought are ways in which to symbolise the scholars in a diagram or a brief description.The brief didactic characteristics given above, which a nature and environmental educational learning process must satisfy, are done justice if they are employed from the socio-constructivistic view of learning underlying this study.