Alternative polymerase chain reaction method to identify Plasmodium species in human blood samples: the semi-nested multiplex malaria PCR (SnM-PCR)

A simplified protocol for the identification of Plasmodium species by semi-nested multiplex polymerase chain reaction (SnM-PCR) in human blood samples is compared with microscopical examination of thin and thick blood films in 2 field trials in Côte d'Ivoire and Cameroon. Also, dried blood spots or liquid blood collected from Dutch soldiers returning from Goma, Zaire (n = 141), Angola (n = 40), and from Marechaussee (Dutch border police) returning from various parts of the world (n = 161) were examined, together with miscellaneous other material obtained from laboratories and hospitals. The method is based on features of the small subunit nuclear ribosomal ribonucleic acid (RNA) gene (ssrDNA), a multicopy gene which possesses both highly conserved domains and domains characteristic for each of the 4 human malaria parasites. The first reaction of the SnM-PCR includes a universal reverse primer with 2 forward primers specific for Plasmodium and mammals, respectively. The mammalian-specific primer was included as a positive control to distinguish uninfected cases from simple PCR failures. The second PCR reaction includes a Plasmodium-specific forward primer plus species-specific reverse primers for P. vivax, P. ovale, P. falciparum and P. malariae. The technique worked better with samples collected in the field as dried blood spots on filter paper and heparinized blood rather than with frozen pelleted blood; it was more sensitive and more specific than the standard microscopical examination