Current developments in 3D printing for craniofacial regeneration

Three dimensional printing, or additive manufacturing, allows the production of customized scaffolds that can enhance craniofacial reconstruction and regeneration. It can be achieved by several techniques, including selective laser sintering, electron beam melting, fused deposition melting, fused filament fabrication, as well as extrusion and laser-assisted bioprinting of cells. 3D-printed constructs can take the form of nonresorbable solid form prosthesis or porous degradable scaffolds that can be resorbed over time and replaced by native tissues. The later can be considered the more desirable outcome but it is also more challenging to achieve. 3D-printed constructs have been used in a variety of oro-dental and craniofacial applications, including vertical bone augmentation, mandibular, and skull defect reconstruction, periodontal regeneration, and temporomandibular joint replacement. Although considerable advancements have been made, challenges remain in translating this technology to the clinic, especially in producing customized, porous, and inter-connected scaffolds for the regeneration of complex multiphasic tissues of varying dimensions ranging from a few millimeters to several centimeters