Fullerene nanoparticles in soil: Analysis, occurrence and fate

Fullerenes are carbon-based nanomaterials that can occur in the environment due to both natural events and human production. Recently, the increasing use in novel nanotechnologies raised concern for the possible adverse effects on humans and the environment. However, the assessment is complicated by the lack of data on the topic and methodologies for its study. In this context, the main aim of the present work was to investigate several aspects of the study of fullerenes in the environment, including their analysis, occurrence and fate. The research was focused on soil, which is expected to act as a sink for the accumulation of fullerenes after release. The research consisted of two parts: first, analytical strategies were developed for the analysis of fullerenes in soil matrices. These analytical methodologies allow the analysis of a large number of fullerenes at environmentally relevant concentrations and independently of the soil texture/properties. In the second part, such methodologies were applied for the study of fullerenes occurrence and fate in soil. First, an environmental survey was carried out in The Netherlands. The analysis of the Dutch soils showed that fullerenes are extensively occurring in the environment and that their presence is likely due to incidental human production (i.e. as by-product of combustion). Subsequently, incubation studies showed that, once released in the environment, fullerenes will interact with the solar radiation and will be degraded as a result. However, once deposited onto soil, their fate will likely be determined by other factors such as the action of microorganisms