Tracks through the sand: understanding the date and nature of Old Kingdom Egyptian activity in the Western Desert

Egyptian foreign interaction during the Old Kingdom has been the subject of a great many past studies. While Nubia, the Sinai and Levant have been discussed in considerable detail over several decades, previous studies often dismiss the Western Desert as an area that was not of great interest to Egyptians. This is exacerbated by the contemporary Egyptian sources, which rarely mention this region in recognisable terms, implying minimal activity. Since the 1970s, an increasing body of archaeological evidence has been revealed within the Western Desert and its oases that challenges this assumption, and instead demonstrates an extensive record of Egyptian activity spanning the entire Old Kingdom. Dakhleh Oasis is particularly rich in material including a wide array of sites, from the administrative capital and seat of the governors at 'Ayn Asil, a regional administrative centre and reprovisioning stop at Ain al-Gazzareen, watch posts at the oasis periphery, and several sites with pottery kilns. This thesis focuses upon the archaeological material in an attempt to determine the date and nature of Egyptian activity in the Western Desert. The earliest activity, during Dynasty III, was focussed upon exploration; the only evidence for permanent settlement within Dakhleh Oasis is located at Mut al-Kharab and suggests that a positive relationship with the indigenous inhabitants, the Sheikh Muftah people, was intentionally fostered. In Dynasty IV, several sites indicate the establishment of a permanent Egyptian presence in Dakhleh Oasis, particularly at Ain al-Gazzareen, where the site was enclosed by a mud brick wall from its inception; activity also continued at Mut al-Kharab. This is coupled with desert activity at Khufu Hill, indicating that the search for, and exploitation of, raw resources was a large determinant in activity at this time. Dynasty V remains poorly defined, largely due to the difficulty in identifying and isolating material of this date from that of earlier and later periods. It is likely, however, that exploratory and perhaps mining activity in the desert continued, while there is no evidence for a hiatus in the occupation of Dakhleh Oasis, suggesting that this also continued. Egyptian activity in the Western Desert reached its peak in Dynasty VI. The oasis was governed and controlled by the administration centred at 'Ayn Asil, ruled by the semi-autonomous 'governors' buried at the nearby cemetery of Qila el-Dabba; textual evidence indicates the exertion of control over all aspects of oasis life, including hunting, herding and the movement of people. A regional administrative centre also operated at Ain al-Gazzareen, monitoring activity in the west on behalf of the governorate. Activity at this time appears linked to use of trade routes passing through the Western Desert, particularly the Abu Ballas Trail, which may have led to Yam. Other evidence from sites such as Meri's Inscription and Bahariya Oasis indicate that Egyptians were active in, or passed through, much of the Western Desert. This thesis definitively demonstrates that the Western Desert witnessed Egyptian activity throughout the Old Kingdom. Early Old Kingdom activity centred on exploration, followed by raw resource exploitation, as witnessed in Nubia and the Sinai. Activity in Dynasty VI shifted to a greater focus upon trade routes to the south and west, likely necessary due to the re-emergence of the C-Group Nubians. Uniquely, Dakhleh Oasis represents the only known example of the occupation and annexation of foreign territory in the Old Kingdom. While excavations and discoveries are ongoing, the evidence and arguments presented here clearly demonstrate that the Western Desert witnessed as much, or perhaps more, Egyptian activity than other neighbouring regions at this tim