Increasing implicit self-esteem through classical conditioning

ABSTRACT—Implicit self-esteem is the automatic, nonconscious aspect of self-esteem. This study demonstrated that implicit self-esteem can be increased using a computer game that repeatedly pairs self-relevant information with smiling faces. These find-ings, which are consistent with principles of classical condi-tioning, establish the associative and interpersonal nature of implicit self-esteem and demonstrate the potential benefit of applying basic learning principles in this domain. Low self-esteem has been implicated in a host of consequential social phenomena, including drug abuse, hostility, and relationship dys-function (Harter, 1993; Leary, Schreindorfer, & Haput, 1995). A person’s level of self-esteem is typically viewed as the sum of his or her conscious self-evaluative thoughts and feelings. Therefore, it is most often assessed explicitly through self-report scales containing items such as ‘‘At times I think I am no good at all’ ’ (Rosenberg