A bilevel multi-objective road pricing model for economic, environmental and health sustainability

We propose a bilevel multi-objective approach to optimise tolls in a road network. Multiple objectives have been considered at either the upper or lower level in the literature but not both. We consider three objectives at the upper level: minimising system travel time; total vehicle emissions; and negative health impacts, modelled as the level of pollutant uptake. For the lower level, we adopt a time surplus maximisation bi-objective user equilibrium model, assuming all users have two objectives: minimising travel time and toll. The complete bilevel optimisation problem is solved using a combination of a metaheuristic and a classical optimisation algorithm