The occupied novel: The representation of foreigners in Haitian novels written during the United States Occupation, 1915–1934

The US Occupation of Haiti from 1915 to 1934 altered the way Haitians perceived and related to foreigners, Americans as well as others. The literature of the period reveals many of the issues Haitians struggled with as they adjusted to their new social and political environment. Some authors portray despair and helplessness. Others focus on resistance and hope. Six Haitian novelists explicitly chose the occupation as both subject and setting for their works. In order of publication, the texts that form the corpus of my thesis are Fernand Hibbert\u27s Les Simulacres (1923), Léon Laleau\u27s Le Choc (1932), Stéphen Alexis\u27 Le Nègre Masqué (1933), Cléanthe Valcin\u27s La Blanche Négresse (1934), Annie Desroy\u27s Le Joug (1934), and Maurice Casséus\u27 Viejo (1935). I define the occupied novel as one in which foreigners are not only major characters, but also control or influence the native characters. Examining the portrayal of foreigners in Haiti\u27s six occupied novels enables me to establish some of the ways in which the collective Haitian identity changed as a result of the occupation. I focus on certain key themes in this endeavor. Romantic and sexual relationships between Haitians and foreigners reveal the animosities and alliances occasioned by the occupation. Class dynamics are also crucial as they point to the tensions in Haitian society which were exacerbated by the political situation. I also explore the ways in which Haitians negotiated the various components of their collective identity, namely their French and African roots. Haitian occupied novels suggest that France becomes less dominant as a foreign reference in the Haitian imagination during the occupation period and tends to be replaced by the United States. In these narratives, Haitians continually assert themselves in opposition to the American invaders. The US occupation changed the Haitian identity from something automatically acquired at birth to something to be earned through patriotic acts of resistance