In the shadow of spreading ivy: Science, culture, and the Cold War at the University of Pennsylvania, 1950–1970

The University of Pennsylvania is a major research university in the United States. During the Cold War, leaders of the institution forged alliances with social, political, economic, and scientific leaders at the local and national levels to expand and enhance the size and reputation of the school. A conscious effort at improving the research capabilities and utility of Penn as a Department of Defense research contractor led to the establishment of a 16-year-long research program in biological warfare. How and why Penn chose to become a significant part of the military-industrial-academic complex associated with the Cold War poses unique questions about the value of research, the role of universities, the rationale for urban renewal, and the impact of social hierarchies upon science and colleges. In Philadelphia, long-standing influences and traditions combined with sweeping political and social change to create a unique manifestation of the military-industrial-academic complex at the University of Pennsylvania. Just as the military revolution of the seventeenth century unleashed transformations with unforeseen ramifications in society, politics, economics, and science in Europe, so too did the military revolution of the twentieth century unleash similar changes in the United States. Long-standing attitudes in the social circles that dominated Philadelphia and Penn established networks that helped shape the development plans of the University in the twenty-five years after World War II. A civic commitment to urban renewal and an institutional commitment to academic excellence combined to mobilize significant resources to expand the Penn campus. Science was the foundation for this expansion. However, some science, while lucrative, was kept in the shadows lest it compromise the ability of the University to meet ambitious goals. A major component of these goals was the erection of an urban science center through redevelopment efforts to serve as an economic engine for the city. Later attempts to unify the University City Science Center and the classified research programs together in a single institute antagonized tensions with the protest movements of the 1960s. Penn\u27s response to these protests was rooted in the traditional attitudes of Philadelphia society and an appreciation for benefits of opportunities