Genesis and alteration of the Kalahari and Postmasburg manganese deposits, Griqualand West, South Africa.

Ph.D.The economically important sedimentary manganese deposits of the Paleoproterozoic Kalahari and Postmasburg manganese fields, are situated in close geographic vicinity to each other in the Griqualand West region of the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. This thesis describes aspects of mineralogy, petrography and geochemistry of the manganese ores with the purpose to establish genetic models for genesis and alteration of manganese ores of both manganese fields. The Kalahari manganese field, situated some 60 km northwest of Kuruman, is the largest known land-based manganese deposit. Manganese ores occur interbedded with iron-formations of the Hotazel Formation of the Voelwater Subgroup of the Late Archean-Paleoproterozoic Transvaal Supergroup. The sediments of the Voelwater Subgroup are preserved in five erosional relics, of which the Kalahari manganese deposit is by far the largest and the only one of economic importance. Two types of ore are mined, low-grade sedimentary Mamatwan-type ore and high-grade Wesselstype ore. Mamatwan-type ore is represented by microcrystalline laminated braunite-lutite composed of kutnahorite, Mn-calcite, braunite and hematite, modified by the occurrence of late diagenetic or metamorphic hausmannite, partridgeite, manganite and calcite. Mamatwan-type ore contains up to 38 mass % Mn and constitutes about 97 % of the ore reserves in the Kalahari manganese deposit. High-grade Wessels-type ore, with a manganese content of between 42 to 48 mass % Mn (on average), constitutes about 3 % of the ore reserves. It occurs only in the northwestern part of the main Kalahari deposit, and in small deposits at Hotazel and Langdon, in association with a system of north-south striking normal faults. The Wessels alteration event is thought to be related to the Kibaran orogenetic event (about 1.1 Ga). Fault zones are ferruginized and alongside faults sedimentary Mamatwan-type ore has been hydrothermally upgraded to Wessels-type ore. Metasomatic fronts are defined by changing mineral associations. These associations clearly illustrate that decreasing degrees of alteration relate to increasing distance from the fluid feeders. Areas of unaltered Mamatwan-type ore are preserved in the core of fault blocks. Wessels-type ore consists mostly of hausmannite, bixbyite, braunite II and manganite and subordinate gangue minerals such as clinochlore and andradite but the mineral assemblage associated with the Wessels alteration event is unusually diverse. More than 100 minerals have been identified, amongst them 8 new mineral species and an unusual, ferrimagnetic, Fe-rich variety of hausmannite. Mass balance calculations illustrate that the upgrading of the Wessels-type manganese ore is a consequence of leaching of CaO, MgO, CO 2, and Si02 from a low-grade Mamatwan-type precursor. This metasomatic process results in increasing secondary porosities, compaction of the orebody to two thirds of its original thickness and consequently residual enrichment of manganese in the ores. Three younger alteration events are observed in the Kalahari manganese deposit. These are only of minor economic importance. Wallrock alteration associated with the Mamatwan alteration event is characterized by reductive leaching of Fe and Mn around syntectonic veins and joints with pyritechalcopyrite- carbonate mineralization. The alteration is explained by infiltration of epithermal solutions that were introduced along veins or joints. The timing of the alteration event has tentatively been placed into the Pre-Karoo era. The Smartt alteration event is associated with intensive faulthosted brecciation and replacement of braunite and carbonates of the Mamatwan-type ore by todorokite and manganomelane, a process that causes considerable upgrading of the manganese ore next to a fault breccia at Mamatwan mine, and the formation of stratiform cross-fibre todorokite veins at Smartt mine. The Smartt alteration event postdates the Mamatwan alteration event and has tentatively been correlated with Pre-Kalahari groundwater circulation. Supergene alteration of the ores took place in Kalahari and Post-Kalahari times. It is characterized by the occurrence of cryptomelane, pyrolusite and other typically supergene manganese oxides along the suboutcrop of the Hotazel Formation beneath the Cenozoic Kalahari Formation. The Postmasburg manganese field is situated about 120 km to the south of the Kalahari manganese field on the Maremane dome. Two arcuate belts of deposits extend from Postmasburg in the south to Sishen in the north. Two major ore types are present. The ferruginous type of ore is composed mainly of braunite, partridgeite and bixbyite and occurs along the centre of the Gamagara Ridge, or Western belt. The siliceous type of ore consists of braunite, quartz and minor partridgeite and occurs in small deposits along the Klipfontein Hills (or Eastern belt) and the northern and southern extremities of the Gamagara Ridge. Geological and geochemical evidence suggest that the manganese ores represent weakly metamorphosed wad deposits that accumulated in karst depressions during a period of lateritic weathering and karstification in a supergene, terrestrial environment during the Late Paleoproterozoic. The dolomites of the Campbellrand Group of the Transvaal Supergroup are host and source for the wad accumulations. Contrasting geological settings are suggested for the accumulation of the siliceous and the ferruginous types of ore respectively. The former originated as small pods and lenses of wad in chert breccia that accumulated in a karst cave system capped by the hematitized Manganore iron-formation of the Transvaal Supergroup. The cave system finally collapsed and the hematitized iron-formation slumped into the sinkhole structures. The ferruginous type of ore accumulated as mixed wad-clay sediment trapped in surficial sinkhole depressions in the paleokarst surface. The orebodies are conformably overlain by the Doornfontein hematite pebble conglomerate or aluminous shales belonging to the Gamagara Formation of the Late Paleoproterozoic Olifantshoek Group. Well preserved karst laterite paleosol profiles, described from the basal section of the Gamagara Formation, provide a strong argument for the terrestrial, supergene origin of the manganese ores. The manganese ores in the Postmasburg manganese field were affected by diagenesis and lower greenschist facies metamorphism. Metamorphism resulted in recrystallization to braunite in the siliceous ores of the Eastern belt, and to massive or mosaic textured braunite and idioblastic partridgeite in the ferruginous environment of the Western belt. Secondary karstification and supergene weathering are evidence for renewed subaerial exposure of the manganese ore and their host rocks. The metamorphic mineral assemblage is replaced by abundant romanechite, lithiophorite and other supergene manganese oxides. Comparison between the Kalahari- and the Postmasburg manganese field shows that sedimentary manganese accumulation took place in entirely different depositional environments and owing to different mechanisms. Their close geographic relationship appears to be coincidental. Apparent similarities arise as a consequence of regional geological events that postdate the deposition of the manganese ores. These similarities include the lower greenschist facies metamorphic overprint, an event tentatively related to thrusting and crustal thickening during the Kheis orogenetic event, and syn- to Post-Kalahari supergene alteration. The correlation of structurally controlled hydrothermal alteration events in the Kalahari manganese field and the Postmasburg manganese field remains difficult due to the absence of the necessary geochronological constraints