The impact of trade costs on rare earth exports : a stochastic frontier estimation approach.

The study develops a novel stochastic frontier modeling approach to the gravity equation for rare earth element (REE) trade between China and its trading partners between 2001 and 2009. The novelty lies in differentiating between<U+2018>behind the border' trade costs by China and the<U+2018>implicit beyond the border costs' of China's trading partners. Results indicate that the significance level of the independent variables change dramatically over the time period. While geographical distance matters for trade flows in both periods, the effect of income on trade flows is significantly attenuated, possibly capturing the negative effects of financial crises in the developed world. Second, the total export losses due to<U+2018>behind the border' trade costs almost tripled over the time period. Finally, looking at<U+2018>implicit beyond the border' trade costs, results show China gaining in some markets, although it is likely that some countries are substituting away from Chinese REE exports