A multilevel model of work-family conflict in a global context: a comparative study across 24 countries

2013-05-23During recent decades, in response to economic changes, the typical family structure in most countries has transformed from traditional breadwinner families to a dual-earner model. Accordingly, increasing demands from work and family placed on dually employed parents have intensified levels of conflict between work and family roles. Prior research has examined work–family conflict separately at micro levels (individuals and families) or macro levels (social policies such as parental leave and benefits), neglecting to acknowledge that individual work–family experiences are greatly susceptible to cultural values. Although some cross-national studies have taken into account cultural differences, their findings were derived from nonrandom samples that lacked representation of many populations. To fill the void in international work–family research, this dissertation investigated the applicability of a multilevel work–family interface based on theories developed in Western societies to different cultural populations and by gender. The theoretical framework for this dissertation was based on the following perspectives: role stress theory (Kahn et al., 1964), GLOBE’s gender egalitarianism and in-group collectivism (Gelfand et al., 2004), job demands–resources theory (Demerouti et al., 2001), social exchange theory (Rhodes & Eisenberger, 2002), the five-factor model of personality (McCrae & John, 1992), gender role perspective (Gutek, Searle, & Klepa, 1991), and institutional theory. ❧ Using data collected by the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) in 2005 from random samples in countries located in Africa, Asia, Europe, and North and South America, this dissertation features three interconnected studies investigating the similarities and differences in the work–family interface between cultures and gender at three levels (macros, mezzo, and micro): (1) the effects of public family-friendly policies on work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict in the cultural context of gender egalitarianism; (2) the applicability of the interface when examining organizational flexibility, work demands, work–family conflict, and affective consequences among working parents in the context of individualism versus collectivism; and (3) the influence of individual personality traits on perceptions of work–family conflict and well-being at work. ❧ This dissertation identified both similarities and differences in the work–family interface across cultures and gender. From the perspective of macro environment, the first study examined the effect of public family-friendly policies on bidirectional work–family conflict by gender. Using hierarchical linear models that combined information on individuals and countries, the study showed that parental leave policies at macro levels have greater effects on work–family conflict among men compared to women. Individual dimensions of parental leave policies on men’s experience of work–family conflict impinged on workplace characteristics (e.g., organizational type) and family characteristics (e.g., having spouses with full-time employment). Implementing parental leave policies with high flexibility and higher rates of income replacement may help men with working spouses or who are employed in the public sector to reduce bidirectional conflicts between work and family. Women generally were not protected by individual dimensions of parental leave policies. Instead, societal attitudes towards gender played a key role in helping women reduce bidirectional conflicts between work and family roles. ❧ From the perspective of mezzo settings, the second study investigated the work–family interface in terms of organizational work–family initiatives, work demands, work–family conflict, and job-related outcomes at mezzo levels. Using multigroup structural equation modeling for data analyses, the study found that for men in individualist countries, allowance for personal leave had stronger effects on reducing work–family conflict, whereas job autonomy significantly lessened the strain of working long hours and work–family conflict among women in collectivist countries. Furthermore, having control over work time lessened work strain and reduced the desire of men in individualist countries to leave their work organizations. In contrast, allowance for personal leave significantly reduced work stress and increased the commitment of women in collectivist countries to their organizations. Interestingly, work demands had no effect on intention to leave among men in individualist cultures. ❧ From a perspective of micro settings, the third study examined individual differences (personality traits) in perceptions of work–family conflict and job satisfaction in the context of individualist versus collectivist cultures. Different dimensions of personality resulted in differing perceptions of work–family conflict based on culture. Among three types of personality traits, openness to experience served as a risk factor predisposing employees in collectivist cultures to experience high levels of work–family conflict. In contrast, neuroticism had a greater influence on work and family discord among employees in individualist countries. The deleterious effects of neuroticism on job satisfaction differed by culture and gender. Men with high levels of neuroticism in individualist cultures were more dissatisfied with their jobs, whereas women in collectivist cultures who were characterized by neuroticism tended to have lower levels of job satisfaction. Compared to the other two dimensions of personality (neuroticism and conscientiousness), openness to experience was the only trait that increased job satisfaction among women in collectivist countries. In sum, gender differences were most pronounced in collectivist cultures. ❧ Altogether, findings of this dissertation examining the work–family interface from macro-, mezzo-, and micro perspectives suggested that experiencing conflicts between work and family greatly impinged on cultural values and gender roles among working parents. Investigating the applicability of a multilevel work–family interface based on theories developed in Western societies to different cultural populations and by gender, the results of this dissertation broaden knowledge regarding the international work–family framework