Purinergic Signaling in Neuroinflammation

ATP is stored in millimolar concentrations within the intracellular medium but may be released to extracellular sites either through the damaged plasma membrane or by means of various transporters. Extracellular ATP or its enzymatic breakdown products, ADP, AMP, and adenosine, may then stimulate a range of membrane receptors (Rs). These receptors are classified as belonging to two types termed P2 or P1. P2Rs can be, in addition, subdivided into the ligand-activated P2X and the G protein-coupled P2Y types. Adenosine acts on the P1 type of receptor. A further classification identifies seven mammalian subtypes of P2X1-7 and eight mammalian subtypes of P2YRs (P2Y1, P2Y2, P2Y4, P2Y6, P2Y11, P2Y12, P2Y13, P2Y14). P1Rs are either positively (A2A, A2B) or negatively (A1, A3) coupled to adenylate cyclase via the respective G proteins. Already, such a high number of receptors suggests that purine-mediated effects at the cellular but especially whole organism level have an immense variability. Whereas P2XRs respond only the ATP, P2YRs are sensitive to ATP/ADP, UTP/UDP, or UDP–glucose. Inspection of some articles in this Special Issue will teach us that the nucleoside guanosine probably possesses a receptor of its own, that nucleotides can be gradually degraded metabolically to functionally active nucleotides/nucleosides (see above), and indirect effects by stimulating the synthesis or decomposition of purines/pyrimidines may also increase functional diversity. Eventually, P2/P1Rs may interact both with each other as well as with other neurotransmitter receptors. It is, of course, important to note that, in many cases, receptor (sub)type-preferential agonists and highly selective antagonists are available for pharmacological analysis