Interactive effects of ambient fine particulate matter and ozone on daily mortality in 372 cities: two stage time series analysis.

OBJECTIVE To investigate potential interactive effects of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone (O3) on daily mortality at global level. DESIGN Two stage time series analysis. SETTING 372 cities across 19 countries and regions. POPULATION Daily counts of deaths from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and respiratory disease. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Daily mortality data during 1994-2020. Stratified analyses by co-pollutant exposures and synergy index (>1 denotes the combined effect of pollutants is greater than individual effects) were applied to explore the interaction between PM2.5 and O3 in association with mortality. RESULTS During the study period across the 372 cities, 19.3 million deaths were attributable to all causes, 5.3 million to cardiovascular disease, and 1.9 million to respiratory disease. The risk of total mortality for a 10 μg/m3 increment in PM2.5 (lag 0-1 days) ranged from 0.47% (95% confidence interval 0.26% to 0.67%) to 1.25% (1.02% to 1.48%) from the lowest to highest fourths of O3 concentration; and for a 10 μg/m3 increase in O3 ranged from 0.04% (-0.09% to 0.16%) to 0.29% (0.18% to 0.39%) from the lowest to highest fourths of PM2.5 concentration, with significant differences between strata (P for interaction