Cytotoxicity and genome-wide microarray analysis of intestinal smooth muscle cells in response to hexavalent chromium induction

Chronic ingestion of high concentrations of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] in drinking water induces intestinal tumors in mice; however, information on its toxicity on intestinal smooth muscle cells is limited. The present study aimed to assess the in vitro and in vivo toxicological effects of Cr(VI) on intestinal smooth muscle cells. Human intestinal smooth muscle cells (HISM cells) were cultured with different concentrations of Cr(VI) to evaluate effects on cell proliferation ability, oxidative stress levels, and antioxidant system. Furthermore, tissue sections in Cr(VI) exposed rabbits were analyzed to evaluate toxicity on intestinal muscle cells in vivo. Gene chips were utilized to assess differential gene expression profiles at the genome-wide level in 1 μmol/L Cr(VI) treated cells. Intestinal tissue biopsy results showed that Cr(VI) increased the incidences of diffuse epithelial hyperplasia in intestinal jejunum but caused no obvious damage to the structure of the muscularis. Cell proliferation analysis revealed that high concentrations (≥64 μmol/L) but not low concentrations of Cr(VI) (≤16 μmol/L) significantly inhibited the growth of HISM cells. For oxidative stress levels, the expression of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) was elevated at high concentrations (≥64 μmol/L) but not at low concentrations of Cr(VI) (≤16 μmol/L). In addition, dose-dependent increases in the activity of oxidized glutathione (GSSH)/total-glutathione (T-GSH) were also observed. Gene chip screened 491 differentially expressed genes including genes associated with cell apoptosis, oxidations, and cytoskeletons. Some of these differentially expressed genes may be unique to smooth muscle cells in response to Cr(VI) induction