Organic agriculture and rural livelihoods in Karnataka, India: A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Applied Science (International Rural Development)

Agriculture is by far the most important livelihood strategy in India, with two thirds of the country's workforce directly depending on farming. Most farmers are small and marginal farmers cultivating areas of less than two hectares. Increasing land fragmentation, diminishing natural assets, high costs for external farm inputs, indebtedness, and pesticide-related health issues have threatened the livelihoods of many farming families and lead to a climate of despair in many rural areas. While incomes in urban areas have risen, farm incomes in real terms have decreased in many parts of India during the past decade. Since the 1990s, a growmg number of farmers have adopted organic agriculture to improve the economic viability of farming and combat negative social and environmental side effects of conventional farming. Organic farmers' groups and NGOs have formed an 'organic grassroots movement' that supports organic farmers, establishes organic marketing channels and tries to influence policies. However, institutional and scientific support for organic farmers has been limited until recently. A proper understanding of the effects, potentials and constraints of organic farming is necessary as a basis for political decision making, the design of support strategies for farmers and further research. The research investigated organic farming as an alternative livelihood strategy to conventional farming. It identified the effects a change from conventional to organic farming has on farmers' livelihoods. The research was carried out as a case study focussing on Karnataka in South India. The field research involved semi-structured interviews with organic farmers, conventional farmers, consumers of organic produce, representatives of NGOs, an organic farmers' group, marketing organisations, the State Agricultural department of Kamataka, and the state agriculture extension system. The research revealed that a conversion from conventional to organic agriculture resulted in improved livelihoods for all the farmers in the case study over the long term. Reduced costs for external farm inputs, reduced labour requirements and similar, or in some cases even higher, yields than under conventional farm management resulted in higher net-farm incomes. Though many organic farmers still market the bulk of their produce via conventional marketing channels, separate organic marketing channels provide premium prices and further potentials. A conversion from conventional to organic farming reduces the reliance on costly external farm inputs and credits, and reduces the risk of crop failure due to pests, diseases and droughts. This together with higher net-farm incomes reduces vulnerability. The exclusion of chemical pesticides in organic farming eliminates the risk of pesticide poisonings and improves food safety. Many organic farmers perceive higher levels of selfsufficiency. Organic farmers better maintain and enhance their natural resources than conventional farmers, resulting in improved environmental sustainability. Through encouraging farmers to experiment and actively enhance their knowledge and through providing access to organic farmers' networks that support knowledge exchange and social contacts, a conversion to organic farming can improve the farmers' human and social assets. Organic farming is more in harmony with cultural values and contributes to the preservation and continuous development of indigenous knowledge. Organic farmers' groups and vertical networks provide a platform for the horizontal exchange of knowledge and expertise, and enable farmers to influence policies. However, a conversion from conventional to organic farming involves high levels of risk and uncertainty. In many cases, farmers face the problem of temporarily declining yields for a conversion period of one to three years. In addition, organic farming requires more knowledge about agro-ecological processes than conventional farming. To date, a lack of institutional extension and educational material on organic farming require organic farmers to rely on their own knowledge and farmers' networks. Lack of information and education and the risks related to the conversion period are major constraints preventing farmers, in particular asset poor farmers, from adopting organic agriculture