Martes martes

13. European Pine Marten Martes martes French: Martre des pins / German: Baummarder / Spanish: Marta europea Other common names: Pine Marten Taxonomy. Mustela martes Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. At least thirteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed. Distribution. Most of Europe up to Russia (W Siberia) and major Mediterranean islands (Mallorca, Minorca, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily); also Middle East in Turkey, Caucasus, Iraq, and Iran. Descriptive notes. Head-body 45-58 cm, tail 16-28 cm; weight 0.8-1.8 kg, adult males are larger than females. The European Pine Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail about half of the head and body length. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a light yellow patch on the throat and chest. The underfur is dark on the sides (it is lighter in the Stone Marten). The rhinarium is black. The plantar soles are hairy. There are two pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The third upper premolar has outer edges that are slightly concave (they are convex in the Stone Marten). Habitat. European Pine Martens are found in mature deciduous and coniferous forests. In Norway, they prefer spruce-dominated forests with large trees, and avoid clearcuts and open habitats. In north-east Belarus, the higher food abundance in woodlands on clay soil results in a higher population density and a more even distribution of European Pine Martens than in woodlands on sandy soil, where they mainly live in valley habitats. Food and Feeding. The diet consists of small mammals (including mice, voles, and squirrels), birds, amphibians, invertebrates, honey, fruits, and berries. In western Scotland, European Pine Martens prey extensively on small mammals (particularly Field Voles Microtus agrestis) and birds. Invertebrates are also important dietary items, with a high intake of beetles (particularly Geotrupes sp.) from March to September. Predation on birds and the intake of earthwormsis highest during the winter;fruits (bramble and rowan berries) are also important in autumn and late winter. In the Scottish Highlands, the diet is very varied and includes small mammals, large mammal carrion, birds, insects, and fruits. Small mammals are consistently important, whereas large mammal carrion, fruits and insects, are seasonal; birds are eaten at all times of the year, but are not a major part of the diet. Although appearing to be opportunist feeders, European Pine Martens did have strong food preferences: of the small mammals eaten, 94% were Field Voles. Insect species were also selectively eaten. Beetles (Geotrupes stercorosus, Carabus sp., and Serica brunnea) and Hymenoptera (Vespula vulgaris and Bonibus spp.) were consumed in large numbers when encountered. The diet indicated that European Pine Martens foraged on the ground, in glade areas within the forest, around night-time. In northern boreal Finland, the analysis of 5677 scats revealed that the European Pine Marten is an opportunistic generalist;its most favored food being small rodents (especially Clethrionomys sp.). Snow cover decreased the consumption of Microtus sp., but not Clethrionomys sp. or the Wood Lemming (Myopus schisticolor). Other food items were: Eurasian Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus), carcasses of Reindeer, eggs, birds, common frog (Rana temporaria), berries, and mushrooms. In north-east Belarus, the diet includes rodents, birds, fruits, and carrion. In woodlands on sandy soil, European Pine Martens specialize in feeding on carrion in the cold season and on berries in the warm season. In winter, Bank Vole densities and the biomass of carrion are crucial food factors. In central Poland, where the European Pine Marten and Stone Marten are sympatric, both species feed mainly on small rodents, birds, and fruits. Although there is a high overlap in the trophic niches of both species, European Pine Martens feed more frequently on rodents and birds and Stone Martens on fruits and insects. In north-west Spain, mammals constitute the main prey all year round (50% ingested biomass), followed by fruit (28-1%), birds (20-9%), insects (0-8%) and reptiles (0-2%). Small mammals are the major prey species (41:6% ingested biomass), mainly Apodemus sp. (19-1%). Mammals are the most consumed prey in spring (65:8%) and winter (79-5%). However, in summer and autumn, European Pine Martens feed mainly on rowanberries (Sorbus aucuparia) (summer: 49-7%, autumn: 59-9%), followed by mammals (summer: 27-2%, autumn: 30-9%). On the island of Minorca, a total of 28 different food items were identified in 723 scats. Small mammals were the most important food overall, constituting 34% of the volume. During March to April, small mammals were the principal food consumed (63% of volume), followed by birds (19%). From May to June, birds were the main food (40%), followed by small mammals. Plant material and insects were the most important foods from July to August, when they made up 68% ofthe diet. Excess food may be cached for later use. Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal. On the island of Minorca, radio-collared European Pine Martens were primarily nocturnal, being active at night 53% of the time in autumn/winter and 59% in spring; daytime activity levels were 19% and 14%, respectively. In Poland, radio-telemetry revealed that 69% of the martens’ active time was during the night. The activity rhythms of European Pine Martens vary between sexes and seasons. In spring, male activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h, whereas in summer and autumn/winter, activity is bimodal, peaking at 18:00-22:00 h and 02:00-04:00 h. Female activity in spring is more evenly distributed than that of males, but in summer their activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h. In autumn/winter, females have a bimodal rhythm, with peaks at 18:00-20:00 h and 02:00-06:00 h. In breeding females, activity rhythms change in the course of pregnancy and nursing. On average, European Pine Martensstart their activity 73 min before sunset and finish 87 min after sunrise. Females became active earlier than males, but both sexes terminate their activity at the same time. On average, both sexes are active for around nine hours per day; they decrease their activity from 13 hours per day on warm days to 2-5 hours per day on cooler days. The number of activity bouts per day varies from one to six (mean 2:6); the activity bouts of males are significantly longer (4 hours, on average) than those of females (3 hours). In the cold season, the duration of short inactive bouts increases and inactivity lasts longer in females than in males. Den/restsites are in hollow trees or logs, under debris, or under snow. In Great Britain, most dens are associated with trees (44-3%), rocks (27-6%) and buildings (13-:8%); 69-6% of all dens are elevated, although only 9-8% are in elevated tree cavities, perhaps indicating a scarcity of arboreal cavities. Movements, Home range and Social organization. European Pine Martens are terrestrial, but are also good climbers and will spend considerable time in trees exploring hollows and cavities in search of prey. Nightly movements may be up to 20-30 km. European Pine Martens are mostly solitary. Average home rangesize is 23 km? for males and 6- 5 km? for females. There is little or no overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but male home ranges greatly overlap those of one or more females. Independent subadults are tolerated within the exclusive ranges of adults of the same sex. In Bialowieza National Park, Poland, the mean annual home range of males (2-58 km?) was larger than that of females (1-41 km?). Daily ranges averaged 49 ha in females and 54 ha in males and constituted 0-3% to 88% of annual home ranges. Seasonal home ranges also differed significantly between males and females. Both sexes held the smallest ranges in December to January; female ranges increased in April to May, whereas those of males increased in June to September when they were mating. There was very little home range overlap between neighboring males (mean 4-6%) or females (mean 6%). Year-round, neighboring individuals of the same sex neither avoided nor attracted each other and females attracted males only during the spring/ summer mating season. Daily movement distance averaged 5- 1 km and the mean speed was 0-6 km /h. With increasing temperature, European Pine Martens moved faster, covered longer distances, and used larger daily ranges. Mobility and home range use were affected by breeding activity. In spring, females rearing cubs had longer daily movement distances and moved faster than non-breeding females. In summer, males covered larger daily ranges during the mating period than outside it. On the island of Minorca, female home ranges were non-overlapping and averaged 0-47 km? (range = 0-31- 0-66 km ®); two male home ranges were partially exclusive, measuring 4-92 km? and 9-19 km?*male home ranges averaged 16 times greater than those of females. In Poland, population densities ranged from 3-6 to 7-6 individuals per 10 km?. Breeding. Mating occurs in mid-summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus, births do not take place until March or April of the following year. Total gestation is 230-275 days. During the breeding season, captive females exhibited one to four periods of sexual receptivity, which usually lasted one to four days and recurred at intervals of 6-17 days. Litter size is two to eight, usually three to five. In Great Britain, natal dens comprise buildings (44:3%), trees (22:8%), other man-made structures (17-1%), and rocks (14-:3%). At birth, the young weigh about 30 g. Their eyes open after 32-38 days, weaning occurs after six or seven weeks, and the young separate from the mother in the autumn. Sexual maturity is attained in the second year. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The European Pine Marten was greatly hunted forits fur, leading to a serious decline of populations in the 1970s, but since then it has recovered in many areas. Bibliography. Bermejo & Guitian (2000), Birks et al. (2005), Brainerd & Rolstad (2002), Clevenger (1993a, 1993b, 1993c), Coope (2007), Goszczynski et al. (2007), Posluszny et al. (2007), Pulliainen & Ollinmaki (1996), Putman (2000), Rosellini et al. (2007), Russell & Storch (2004), Selas (1991), Sidorovich et al. (2005), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Zalewski (2000, 2001), Zalewski et al. (1995, 2004).Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2009, Mustelidae, pp. 564-656 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 630-631, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.571404