Localized carry-over effects of pond drying on survival, growth, and pathogen defenses in amphibians

Climate change is increasing variability in precipitation patterns in many parts of the globe. Unpredictable changes in water availability can be particularly challenging for organisms that rely on precipitation-fed water sources for completing their life cycle, such as many amphibian species. Although developmental plasticity can mitigate the impacts of changing environments for some species, this strategy can come at a cost to other fitness-linked traits, such as immune function. We investigated localized variation in the capacity to respond to pond drying and evaluated whether developmental responses induced carry-over effects in disease susceptibility in three leopard frog species (Rana [Lithobates] pipiens and R. sphenocephala; two populations each, and one population of R. chiricahuensis). Using mesocosms located near the site of collection (