Fuelling Urbanisation: A study of woodland composition in relation to the rise of complex urban centres in Late Neolithic north-central China

This thesis presents the analysis conducted on anthracological (wood charcoal) assemblages from archaeological sites to identify the arboreal vegetation and the impact humans had on it during the Late Neolithic Longshan culture period of north-central China (3000 - 1800 BCE). The studied sites come from three regions in north-central China: Bicun and survey sites in the Jinxi-Yufenhe region of North Shanxi province, Zhoujiazhuang in South Shanxi province, and Pingliangtai and Haojiatai in central-east Henan province. In all these regions, the Late Longshan Neolithic is characterised by a drastic population and site density increase and by the emergence of the first large urban centres dominating a multi-tiered settlement hierarchy. The specific aims of this research are: (a) to identify the wood taxa present on the studied sites; (b) to evaluate their representation of the surrounding woodland vegetation structure and woodland vegetation ecologies; (c) to identify any spatial or temporal differences within the taxonomic representation; (d) to explore the causes of any such differences, whether anthropic or natural; (e) to explore whether any woodland management or fuel selection practices can be identified; and (f) to explore the suitability and potential of anthracological analysis in China. This study starts by summarising published works on the archaeology of north-central China, the modern and past arboreal vegetation of China, and its climate. The results of published anthracological studies conducted in China are synthesised and reviewed in light of advances in international anthracological theory and methods. To identify Chinese wood charcoal, published microscopic anatomy descriptions of Chinese wood are collated into a searchable database and dichotomous key, which was used to identify the anthracological assemblages. Analytical methodologies applied include standard taxon frequency and ubiquity analyses. At Bicun and Zhoujiazhuang, a quantitative analysis of dendroanthracological features was also conducted, while density assessment and correspondence analysis could be conducted at Bicun. The results at the site and phase level are explored in relation to previously published sites in the study regions. This thesis demonstrates that the arboreal vegetation in the Late Neolithic was indicative of a relatively wetter and warmer climate in all studied regions. However, some observed patterns in arboreal vegetation composition cannot be attributed solely to climate change; the ecological footprint of anthropic influence stemming from urbanisation was also being felt. This research highlights the unique potential of anthracology to provide novel insights into the palaeoecology and palaeoeconomies of China