Protein-based biological materials: molecular design and artificial production

Polymeric materials produced from fossil fuels have been intimately linked to the development of industrial activities in the 20th century and, consequently, to the transformation of our way of living. While this has brought many benefits, the fabrication and disposal of these materials is bringing enormous sustainable challenges. Thus, materials that are produced in a more sustainable fashion and whose degradation products are harmless to the environment are urgently needed. Natural biopolymers –which can compete and sometimes surpass the performance of synthetic polymers– provide a great source of inspiration. They are made of natural chemicals, under benign environmental conditions, and their degradation products are harmless. Before these materials can be synthetically replicated, it is essential to elucidate their chemical design and biofabrication. For protein-based materials, this means obtaining the complete sequences of the proteinaceous building blocks, a task that historically took decades of research. Thus, we start the review with a historical perspective on early efforts to obtain the primary sequences of load-bearing proteins, followed by latest developments in sequencing and proteomic technologies that have greatly accelerated sequencing of extracellular proteins. Next, four main classes of protein materials are presented, namely fibrous materials, bioelastomers exhibiting high reversible deformability, hard bulk materials, and biological adhesives. In each class, we focus on the design at the primary and secondary structure levels and discuss their interplays with the mechanical response. We finally discuss earlier and latest research to artificially produce protein-based materials using biotechnology and synthetic biology, including current developments by start-up companies to scale-up the production of proteinaceous materials in an economically viable manner.Ministry of Education (MOE)National Research Foundation (NRF)Published versionAM acknowledges financial support from the Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE) through an Academic Research (AcRF) Tier 3 grant (Grant No. MOE 2019-T3-1-012) and an AcRF Tier 2 grant (Grant No. MOE 2018-T2-1-043) and from the strategic initiative on biomimetic and sustainable materials (IBSM) at Nanyang Technological University (NTU). JY thanks the Singapore National Research Fellowship (NRFNRFF11-2019-0004) and the Singapore MOE Tier 2 Grant (MOE-T2EP30220-0006). PM would like to acknowledge financial support from the Academy of Finland project (Grant No. 348628), the Academy of Finland Center of Excellence Program (2022-2029) in Life-Inspired Hybrid Materials (LIBER) project number 346106, and the Jenny and Antti Wihuri Foundation (Centre for Young Synbio Scientists) as well as internal funding from the VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland