Marker-assisted selection for the improvement of cereals and pseudocereals

Cereals are grasses (a monocot family Poaceae, also known as Gramineae) cultivated widely for their grains used in human and animal consumption. From ancient times, cereals have played an important role in world agriculture and nowadays their significance is illustrated by the overall production of 2.996 million tons being harvested globally in 2020 (FAOSTAT, 2021). The most important staple cereal crops are wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, barley, oats, and millet. However, wheat, rice, and maize together comprise at least 75% of the world’s grain production, with 761, 757, and 1.162 million tons harvested in 2020, respectively. Rice, sorghum, millet, and wheat are widely produced in Asia; corn and sorghum in America; and barley, rye, and oats in Europe. These three continents produce together 80% of the world’s cereal grains. Cereals are a pivotal nutrient source in both developed and developing countries since their grains contain major nutritional and energy sources (proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, amino acids, fibers) as well as micronutrients (vitamins, magnesium, and zinc) (O’Neil et al., 2010; Papanikolaou & Fulgoni, 2017). However, the utilization pattern of these cereal grains differs. In developed countries, more than 70% of total cereal production is fed to the animals, whereas in underdeveloped countries, 68%–98% of the cereal production is used for human consumption