Advances in studying interfacial reactions in rechargeable batteries by photoelectron spectroscopy

Many of the challenges faced in the development of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and next-generation technologies stem from the (electro)chemical interactions between the electrolyte and electrodes during operation. It is at the electrode-electrolyte interfaces where ageing mechanisms can originate through, for example, the build-up of electrolyte decomposition products or the dissolution of metal ions. In pursuit of understanding these processes, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) has become one of the most important and powerful techniques in a large collection of available tools. As a highly surface-sensitive technique, it is often thought to be the most relevant in characterising the interfacial reactions that occur inside modern rechargeable batteries. This review tells the story of how XPS is employed in day-to-day battery research, as well as highlighting some of the most recent innovative in situ and operando methodologies developed to probe battery materials in ever greater detail. A large focus is placed not only on LIBs, but also on next-generation materials and future technologies, including sodium- and potassium-ion, multivalent, and solid-state batteries. The capabilities, limitations and practical considerations of XPS, particularly in relation to the investigation of battery materials, are discussed, and expectations for its use and development in the future are assessed