Complex upper extremity injuries: targeted muscle reinnervation, free functional muscle transfer, and vascularized composite allotransplantation

Restoration of upper extremity function poses a unique surgical challenge. With considerations ranging from ensuring appropriate skeletal support and musculotendinous and ligamentous anatomy, restoring adequate vascularity and innervation, and providing sufficient soft tissue coverage, upper extremity injuries present a diverse range of reconstructive problems. Recent history has been marked by an expansion of novel techniques for addressing these complex issues. Sophisticated modalities, such as targeted muscle reinnervation, free functional muscle transfer, and vascularized composite allotransplantation, have become some of the most powerful tools in the armamentarium of the reconstructive surgeon. This review article aims to define the distinguishing features of each of these modalities and reviews some of their unique advantages and limitations