Powder degradation during powder bed fusion processing: impact of processing conditions and alloy composition

In the recent decade, powder bed fusion (PBF) metal additive manufacturing (AM) has attracted huge attention both from the industry and the research community. This effort has helped mature PBF technology as a potential alternative to conventional manufacturing processes as casting, machining, forging, etc. However, there remain various challenges hindering the path of large-scale adoption of these techniques in the manufacturing industry. One such challenge affecting the cost, reproducibility of the products and sustainability of the process, is the reusability of unconsumed powder after each build job. The issue during powder reusability is the likelihood of degraded quality of the reused powder compared to virgin powder either by oxidation during exposure to the atmosphere, or accumulation of process byproducts, referred to as spatters, during processing. The quality degradation of the feedstock powder can lead to an increased number of defects in the produced products and affect the robustness and reproducibility of the PBF process. This thesis is focused on determining the dominant powder degradation mechanisms in powder bed fusion laser-beam (PBF-LB) and powder bed fusion electron-beam (PBF-EB) processes. Here, the approach to investigate the degradation of reused powder is based on the dedicated analysis of changes in powder surface chemistry, analysis of oxygen pick-up, and variation in surface morphology. During the analysis of the powders during the PBF-LB process, three different alloy systems were studied, namely aluminum alloys (AlSi10Mg), nickel-based superalloys (Alloy 718 and Hastelloy X (HX)), and titanium alloys (TiAl6V4). The assessment of powder degradation was initiated with the investigation of AlSi10Mg powder reused for over 30 months. The analysis showed that the powder degradation is mainly triggered by the accumulation of highly oxidized spatter particles in the powder, characterized by the overall greater oxide layer thickness (~75-125 nm) on the surface of powder. These oxidized spatter particles are contributing towards increasing the oxygen content and number of defects in the as-printed components. Analysis of the surface oxide state of spatter particles, generated during the processing of Alloy 718, HX alloy, and TiAl6V4 revealed that the extent of oxidation of spatters from different alloy systems is dependent on the content of oxidation-sensitive elements e.g., Al. Ti, Cr, etc. The impact of the part design in terms of surface to volume ratio of the part on the spatter generation and accumulation was also shown. Results also show an increasing amount of spatter formation with increasing layer thickness per layer deposited. However, the total amount of spatter generated per build job is lower when a higher layer thickness was applied. The results have shown that by employing appropriate processing gas composition containing He the generation of spatter can be reduced. Furthermore, by reducing residual oxygen content in the build chamber, the extent of spatter oxidation can be reduced. Finally, the effect of powder degradation on the quality of fabricated parts was analyzed where the accumulation and redeposition of spatters on the powder bed resulted in a lack of fusion defects, higher porosity, and a decrease in the strength of fabricated parts. In the PBF-EB process, powder oxidation and sublimation of volatile elements during the processing of Alloy 718 have been investigated. The results have identified powder oxidation during PBF-EB processing, due to the long-term powder exposure to high temperature, as the dominant powder degradation mechanism. Furthermore, the sublimation of the alloying elements such as Al and Cr in the case of PBF-EB processing of Alloy 718 was detected