Strategies for the Synthesis of Yardsticks and Abaci for Nanometre Distance Measurements by Pulsed EPR

Pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) techniques have been found to be efficient tools for the elucidation of structure in complex biological systems as they give access to distances in the nanometre range. These measurements can provide additional structural information such as relative orientations, structural flexibility or aggregation states. A wide variety of model systems for calibration and optimisation of pulsed experiments has been synthesised. Their design is based on mimicking biological systems or materials in specific properties such as the distances themselves and the distance distributions. Here, we review selected approaches to the synthesis of chemical systems bearing two or more spin centres, such as nitroxide or trityl radicals, metal ions or combinations thereof and outline their application in pulsed EPR distance measurements