Tlrls impre.ssio~a has been produced phato~nphically from corrected sheets of the Second Edition &inled wholl~ in E)igln~zd for tlrr MUSTON COMPANY By LOWE $ BRYDONE, PRINTERS. L ~ D . PARK STREET, CAMDEN TOWN, LONDON, .W. I FOR STUDENTS $b BY ARTHITR A . MACDONELL A M. A., PH.D., LL.D. (Edin.), D.O. L. (Calcutta) : late Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford ; Hon. Fellow of Corpus Christi College: Fellow of the British Academy THIRD EDITIOX O X F O R D CNIVERSI'I 'Y PRESS 1,ONL)ON : HLTblPHREY MILFORD 1927 PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION IN preparing a new edition of this grammar I have found I misprints requiring correction to be few and insignificant. Tile alterations that seenied necessary are nearly all conceriled with facilitating the use of the boolr for students. One of tllese is the indication of the relevant number of chapter and on the inside top corner of each page. Since the grammar is intended to supply a complete accou~it of Classical Sanskrit, many paragraphs may be omitted till a later stage of study. I therefore here appentl a list of those whicl~ :we essential for absolute beginners ant1 tllus constitute a virtual primer of Classical Sanskrit. I : 1-7, 8-12, 13. 11 : 16-22, 27, 30-34, 36 A. B., 37, 38, 40, 42-44, 45, 1. 2, 52-55, 65, 67. 111: 70, 71, 73 , 74, 77, 85, 87, go, I , 97, roo, ror TI (p. 63), 103, I , 2, 109-111, 1 2 0 . I V : 121-128, 131, 132 (only Pres. Par., pp. 92, 98), 135, 136, 138, I (only dtud. , Par.), 141 a (only Par.), 143, I (only Par.), 147 (only Par.), 148 (only a,lcim), 151 (only Par.), 154 (only Pres.), 156, 160, I , 2 , 162, 163, 167, 168, 169, 172, 175. When the student has gone through these paragraphs he will be quite prepared to begin reading. Any new gmrn- lnatical forms he now meets with he will be able to find explained in the paragraphs that have been passed over. In this way he will understand, with the aid of a vocabulary, every word in the first canto of the Story of &aln within the course of a month, and know all the grammar necessary for reading easy Sanskrit texts. vi PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION Siuce t l ~ e appearance of the secontl edition of this work ( I 9 1 I ) m y Vedic Grctmnzar for Studevzts was published (191 6). Though this new book seemed a t first sight to illake Appendix I11 superfluous in the preseut work (pp. 236-q4), I decided to retain i t as presenting Tedic gralnillar in a n abridged forin and rendering i t easier for nb>olute beginners to master. A. A. 111. 2 0 BARDU'ELL ROAD, OXFORD. Ko~wrnbrr, I 926. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION THE original form of the present work was my abridgement (1886) of Max Miiller's Sanskrit Grammar (2nd ed., 1870). That abriclgement was the outcome of what I had found by experience, both as a learner and a teacher, to be unessential in an elementary grammar. It was also partly due to my con- viction that the existing Sanskrit glammars, being too much dominated by the system of P ~ n i n i , rendered Sanskrit un- necessarily hard to learn. The introductory sketch of the history of Sanskrit grammar prefixed to the present volume will, I think, sufficiently show that the native Indian system is incompatible with the practical methods of teaching and learning in the West. I n the first edition of this grammar, published in 1901, the earlier book was transfornled into a n entirely new work. Though, on the whole, considerably enlarged i t showed many omissions. For I made it my guiding principle to leave out all matter tha t is fouild exclusively i n Vedic literature or in the Hindu grammarians, the aim I had i n view being to describe only such grammatical forms as are to be met with i n the actual literature of post-Vedic Sanskrit. The student of Sanskrit grammar would thus not be burdened with matter which could never be of any practical use to him. Hence I refrained from employing, even i n a paradigm, any word not to be found i n the literature; t,liough for the ~ a k e of completeness I here often gave inflected forms represented only by other words of the same type. The purpose of the book, then, was not to supply a mass of forms and rules mainly useful for answering examination questions more or . . . VIII 1'REEAC:E TO SECOND EDITION less mechanically, but to provide the student with the full glan~matical equiplnent necessary for reading any Sanskrit text with ease and exactness. The present edition has undergolle a tliorough revision aided by tlie experience of ten more years' teaching and by the suggee- tions of pupils and others who have used the first edition. The * irnprovelnents chiefly cousist of additions, which have increased the size of the book by tw-enty-four pages. An entirely new portion of the grammar are the three sections comprised in pages 159-168. The first (182) deals with nominal sten1 formation, giving an account of the plimary alid secondary suffixes, and thus furnishing the student wit11 a more complete insight into the structure of Sanskrit words than the first edition supplied. I11 connexion with these suffixes a survey (183) of the rules of gender is added. The third new section (184) describes the formation of verbal compounds. The most noticeable case of expansion is otherwise to be found i n the rules about the treatment of final dental n in Sandhi: these now give a complete account (36, 40) of the changes undergone by that letter. I n the accidence a few new paradigms have been introduced, such as griivan (go, 4), a ~ l d additional forms have been given, as in the difficult s-aorist of dab, where (I 44,5) even middle forms, though not occurring in that verb, are snpplied as a model for other verbs presenting similar clifficulties of euphonic combination. Other improvements are intelided to facilitate the use of tlie grammar. Thus in the list of verbs (Appendix I) abbreviations have been added to indicate the various f o ~ m s which beginners have otherwise often found difficulty in identifying. Again, the Sanskrit Index has been made both fuller and more explanatory (see e.g. prakrtu). A decidedly practical improvernellt is the substitution of a brief synopsis of the subject-matter for a n elaborate table of contents at the beginning, and the addition of a General Index a t the 1 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION ix end. All these extellsions and changes will, I feel sure, be found to have collsiderably increased the practical value of the grammar both in matter and form. As in the first edition, the boolr is transliterated throughout, excepting the list of verbs (Appendix I) arid the syntactioal examples a t the end (180 ; 190-2 18). The system of trans- literation remains the same, being that which is now most generally adopted in tlie llTest. This systein includes the use of I. (to be pronounced with a syllabic value, as the I. in French ciiambre) to represent the weak grade of the syllables ur and ra. The impr oremelits appearing in this edition are largely due to the suggestions of former pupils or of friends. The gentlemen to whom I owe thanks for their advice ale-Prof. E. J. Rapson; Dr. James Norison; Yr. ?If. L. Puri, B.A., of Exeter College; Mr. Horace I iar t , M.A., Controller of the University Press; and especially 311..T. E. Jloi~., T.C.S.,of WadhamColIege, as well as Dr. F. ITT'. Tho~nas, Librarian of the India Office. Mr. J. C. Pembrey, Hon. BI.A., O r i e ~ ~ t a l Reader of the University Press, has read with his u s n ~ l care the proofs of this edition, which is separated by no lees an interval tllan sixty-four years from the 6lat Sanskrit Grammap which he (together with his father) corrected for the press, that of Prof. H . H.lVilson, in I 847. To Dr. A. B. Kei th I am irldobted for leading the proofs of this as well :IS of all the other books I have published since 1900. 1 must take tbis opportunity of thanking him riot only for having read the proof's of the whole of niy Vedzc G~antn2av, but also for having passed ~everal sheets of that work through the press for me during Iny . absence ih India between September, 1907, and April, 1908. A. A. MACDONELL. 107 BANBURY ROAD, OXFORD. INTRODUCTION I/ BRIEF HISTORY OF SANSKRIT GRAMMAR THE first impulse to the study of grammar i n India was given by the religious motive of preserving intact the sacred Vedic texts, tlie efficacy of which was believed to require attention to every letter. Thus, aided by the great transparency of the Sanskrit lang~:age, the ancient Indian grammarians had by the fifth ceu- tury B.C. arrived a t scientific ~ e s u l t s unequalled by any other uation of antiquity. It is, for instance, their distinctive achieve- ment to have recognized that words for the most part cotlsist 011 tlie one hand of roots, and on the other of affixes, which, when com- pounded with the former, modify the radical sense i n various ways, Tlie oldest grammar that has been preserved is Piinini's. It already represents a fully developed system, i ts author standing a t the end of a long line of predecessors, of whom no fewer than sixty-four are mentioned, and the purely grammatical works of all of whom, owing to the excellence and con~prehensiveness of his work, have entirely perished. P ~ n i n i is considerably later than YBska (probably about 500 B.c.), whom he mentions, and between whom and himself a good number of important grammarians intervene. On the other hand, P i i ~ i n i s much older than his interpreter Pataiijali, who probably dates from the latter half of the second century B.c . . the t h o bein2 separated by another eminent grammarian, kity%: yam. Piinini himself uses the word ?/uvaal~&ni, which Katviiyana explains a; ' writing of the Yavanas ' (i. e. Iiiones or ~ r e e k s j . NO\,- it is not a t all likely tha t the Indians should have become acquainted ;vith Grcek writing before the invasion of Alexander iu 32'7 B.C. But the natives of the extreme north-west, of whon~ Piinini in all plobahility mas one, would naturally have become acquainted with i t soon after that date. They must, however, have grown familiar with i t bcfore a grainmalian would make a rule as to how to form from Yavana, 'Greek,' INTRODUCTION si a derivative form meaning 'Greek writing '. It seems therefore hardly possible to place PBnini earlier than about 300 B.C. PiLnini's grammar consists of nearly 4,000 rules divided into eight chapters. Being c$mposed with the utmost imaginable brevity, each Siitra or aphorism usually consists of only two or three words, and the whole work, if printed continuously in medium-sized Devaniigari type, would not occupy more than about thirty-five pages of the present volume. And yet this grammar describes the entire Sanskrit language i n all the details of its structure,with a completeness which has never been equalled elsewhere. I t is a t ouce the shortest and fullest grammar i n the world. I n his endeavour to give an exhaustive survey of the bhiisti or classical Sanskrit with a view to correct usage, Piiuini went on to include within the scope of his grammar the language of the sacred texts, which was no longer quite intelligible. H e accordingly gives hundreds of rules about the Veda, but without completeness. His account of the Vedic language, taken as a whole, thus shows many gape, important matters being often omitted, while trifles are noticed. I n this part of his work Piinini shows a decided i~capac i ty to master his subject-matter, attri- buting to the Veda the most unbounded grammatical license, especially i n interchanging or dropping inflections. The grammar of Piinini is a Sabdiinudtisana, or ' Treatise on Words ', the fundamental principle of which is, that all nouns are derived from verbs. Starting with the simplest elements into which words can be analysed, root, affix aud termination, PBnini shows how nominal and verbal stems are formed from roots and complete words from stems. He a t the same time indicates the functions which words acquire by the addition of formative elements and by being compounded with other words. It, is a peculiarity of Pi i~ini ' s word-formation, that he recognizes deri- vation by suffixes only. Thus when a verbal root like bhid, ' to pierce,' is used in the nominal seme of ' piercer ', he has recourse to the highly artificial expedient of assunling an imaginary suffix, for which a blank is substituted ! YiLska records that the universality of SiLkat5yana's principle of nouns being derived from verbs was contested by Giirgya, who objected to the forced etymologies resulting from a general s i i - INTRODUCTION application of this principle. Ggrgya maintained thxt if as'un, ' horse,' for instance, were derived from ai, 'to travel,' not only ~ v o u l i everything that travels he called ns'ra, and evelything be named after all i ts artivities, but states of being (h/~ava) ~lvould be antecedent to things (which are presupposed by those states). Piinini nlaltes a concession t o G51gya's objection by excluding all words the delivation of which is dificult owing to their form or meaning, as adva, [horse,'go, 'cow,' andpt~rzya, 'nlan.' Primary nouns of this Bind had bee11 collected before P~ll ini ' s time in a special list, in which they were often forcibly derived fiom verbal roots by means of a number of special suffixes. The first of these suffixes being u, tecl>nically called un, the whole list of these Sormatiolis received the name of unadi (' beginning with un '). Piinini refel s to all such words as ready-made stems,the formation of which does not concein him. The Un5di list which Pgniiii had before him survives, in a soniewllat modified form, as theUnBdi Siitra wit11 the commentary (dating probably from the thirteenth century a D.) of Ujjvala- datta. I n its extant shape this Siitra contains some late words, such as dinrcl-a (Lat. denarius), a noun wllicb cannot have co~ne into use in India much before IOO A.D. The proper ohject of PInini's grammar being derivation, he does not deal with phonetics as such, but only incidentally as affecting word-formation, or the combi~lation of words in a sentence. H e therefore does not give general rules of p11011etic change, but since his analyses, unlike those of the Unldi Siitra, move within the bounds of probability and are generally correct, being in many cases confirmed by comparative philology, he actually did cli~cover several phonetic laws. The most important of these was tile inte~change of vowels with their strong grades yuga and vyddi~i (cp. I?), which Grinlm called ablaut, and ml~ich comparati\e grammar traces to the original Indo-European language. The other great phonetic discoveries of the Indians had already been made by P ~ n i n i ' s predecessors, the authors of the original Pr~t ihikhyas, the phonetic treatises of the Vcdlc schools. Pgnini also treats of the accents of words in derivation and in the sentence, but with syntax in our sense he does not deal. perhaps owing to the simplicity of the senterlce in Sanskrit. ... INTRODUCTION ~ 1 1 1 The general plan of Psnini's work is as follows : Rook i. con- tains the technical terms of the grammar and its rules of inter- pretation; ii. deals with nouns i n co~nposition and case relations; iii. teaches how suffixes are to be attached to verbal roots ; iv. and v. explain the sanle procees with regard to nominal stems ; vi. and vii. describe the accent and phonetic changes in the fol nation of words, while viii. treats of words in a sentence. This ge~ieral illan is, however, constantly interrupted by single rules or by a series of rules, mhicll mere added by the author as a result of progressive grammatical studies, or tlaiisferred from their natural context to their present position in older t o economize wolds. I n formulating his rules, Piinini makes it his ail11 to express then1 in a s abstract and general a way as possible. I11 this he . occasionally goes so far as to stcite a general rule for a single case; while, on the other hand, he sometimes fails to collect a number of related phenomena under a single head. I n carrying out the principle of extreme conciseness dominating his gramnlar, Piinini resorts to various der-ices, suc l~ as ellipse of the verb, the use of the cases in a special technical sense, and the employment of heading rules (udAiLiira) which must be supplied with a number of subordinate iules that follow. By such means a whole rule can often be expressecl by a single word. Thus the ablative dl~dtoh, literally 'after a root '. not only means ' to a root tlie following suffixes are attached', but is also an adhikiira extend- ing i ts influence (a?zuv!~tti) over some 540 subsequent apl~orisms. The principle of brevity is, moreover, notably applied in the invention of teclinical terms. Those of Pznini's terms which are real words, wlietlier they describe the phenomenon, as sam-dsa, 'compound,' or express a category by an example, as dvi-gu ('two- COW'), 'numeral compound,' are probably all borrowed from pre- decessors. But most of his technical terms are arbitrary groups of letters resenlbling algebraic symbols. Only a few of these ale abb~eviations of actual words, as i t , 'indicatory letter,' from i t i , 'thus.' Nost of them are the rewlt of great deliberation, being chiefly composed of letters rarely occurring in the language. Thus the letter 2 was taken as a symbol of the personal eldings of the verb ; combined with a cerebral 6 i t refers to a. p r i m a r ~ tense or mood, but combined with a guttural n i t denotes a secondary tense or mood. Thus lnt, lit, I @ , le t , lot,, mean present, perfect, s i v INTRODUCTION future, subjunctive, and imperative respectively ; lan, luli, lin, imperfect, aorist, and p o t e ~ t i ~ i l . Piinini's grammar begins with the alphabet arranged on scien- tific principles. To several of its letters is attached an i t or anubalzdha (indicatory letter), by means of which can be formecl convenie~lt coi~tractions (called pratyciha~a) designating different groups of letters. The vowels are arranged thus : a i zc-n, ?- [-k, e o-n, a i au-c. By means of the indicatory letter a t tlie end of the group, all the simple vo\vels can be expressed by ak, the simple vowels together with the diphthongs by ac. As the last letter in Sanslrrit is JL, written ha-2, the entire alphabet is ex- pressed by the synibol a1 (much as if we were to express it by az). Indicatory letters are also attached to suffixes, loots, and words i n order to point to certain rules as applicable to them, thus aiding the memory as well as promoting brevity. P~nin i ' s work lias two appendixes, to which it refers. One of these is the Dhctu-p&tha, or 'L i s t of Verbal Roots', arranged - according to conjugational classes, the niode of inflexion beiug expressed by accelits and indicatory letters. A striking fact about this collection is that of its 2,000 roots (nlany of which are, liow- ever, merely variants of one form) only about 800 have yet been found in Sanskrit literature, while i t omits about fifty Vedic verbs. The second appendix is the Gana-p@ha, or 'Lis t of Word- groups'. Psnini gives rules applicable to the whole of a group by referring to its first word. This collection, which contains many words occurring in Vedic works only, has been less wrll preserved than the Dhatu-p@ha. The Ganas were metrically arranged i n the Gana-ratna-mahodadhi, or 'Ocean of the Gems of Word-groups ', a work composed by Vardhamiina in I 14 o A. D. Piiniui's work very early acquired a canonical value, and lias continued, for a t least 2,000 years, to he the standard of usage and the foundatiori of grammatical studies i n Sanskrit. On account of the frequent obscu~ity of a work which sacrifices every consideration to brevity, atteinpts soon began to be made to explain it, and, with the advance of grammaticill knowledge, t o coriect and supplement its rules. Among the earliest attempts of this lciiid was the formulation, by unlinown authors, of rules of interpretation (~1uribh8sd), which P ~ n i n i was supposed to have followed in his grammar, and which are mentioned by his suc- INTRODUCTION I cessor Kiityiiyana. A collection of such rules was made in the eighteenth century by Niigoji-bhatta in his Pa~i5h6se?zdu-&ekhara, or 'Moon-crest of Interpretative Rules', Next we have the V~r t t ikas , or 'notes' (from vrtti, ' explana- tion'), of Kiitysyana, on 1 , 2 4 5 , or nearly one-third, of Piinini's aphorisms. That grammarian belonged to the Deccan, and pro- bably lived in the third century B.C. When KZty%yanaYs criticism shows him to differ from Piinini, a n oversight on the part of the latter is usually to be assumed ; bnt in estimating the extent cf such oversights, one should not leave out of account the fact that Ki i ty iya~~a lived both later and in a part of India far removcd from that of Piinii~i. Other grammarians made similar notes on Pfinini both before and after Katyiyana ; subsequent to the latter's time are the nunlerous grammatical IGrikiis or comments in metrical form. All this critical work was collected by Patafijali in his extensive MahabhB~ya, or 'Great Commentary ', with many supplementary notes of his own. His discussiolis take the form of a kind of dialogue, and deal with 1,713 rules of Piinini. Pataiijali's work probably dates, as has Leen said, from the lat,ter half of the second century B.C. The ili'ak8bhZE;ga in its turn was com- mented upon in the seventh century by Bhartrhari in his JTiik- yapadiya, or 'Treatise on the Words in a Sentence', which is concerned with the philosophy of grammar, and by Kaiyata probably i n the thirteenth century. About 650 AD. was composed another commentary on PBnini, the Iliidika Trtti, or ' Benares Commentary ', the first five books being the work of Jayaditya, the last three of Viimana. Based on a deteriorated text of l'inini, i t contains some errors, but has the melit of conciseness and lucidity. Though much sholter than the II.fahiibhd~ya, i t is palticularly valuable as the oldest com- ~ n e i ~ t a i y on pi in in^ that explains every S6tra. The examples that i t gives in illustration are, as a rule, derived flom older inter- peters . Such borrowing was a usual practice; even PataE- jali speaks of stock examples as mdrdhdbhi+ilcta, or 'consecrated' (lit. sprinkled on the head'). I n the fifteenth centclry Riimzcandra endeavoured i n his P r a - kriy8-kaumc~d;, or ' Moonlight of Method ', to make Piinini's grammar more intelligible by rear~anging its matter iu a more xvi INTRODUCTION practical way. The Xidd?hdrzta-kaunazcdi-, o r (Moonlight of SettledConclusions', in which Ehattoji in the seventeentl~ century clisposed Piinini's Sutras i r ~ a more natural older, had a similar aim. An abridgement of this work, entitled Layhu-(siddltbnia-) kaumudZ, or 'Short Noonlight (of Settled Conclusions)', by Yara- dariija, is commonly employed as a useful introduction to the native system of gramrnar. A belief in the infallibility of P~l l in i , which still prevails among the Pandits, has often led the above- uamed interpreters, fiom Patafijali onwards, to give forced explanations of Piigini's rules. Other later grammarians, not belonging to the school of Piinini, are on the whole of little importance. While adducing hardly 9ny new material, they are much less complete than Piinini, since they omit whole sections, such as rules ahout Vedic forms and the accent. Introducing no new points of view, they aim solely a t inventing tech~iical devices, or a t presenting their sul~ject in a more lucid and popular form. Among these non-Piiqinian gramlnarians may be mentioned the naines of Candra', who flour- ished about 650 A. D . ~ ; the pseudo-S'iikat?iyana, who was posterior to thelitidikd V ~ t t i ;and the most important of them:Hemacandra (twelfth century). The Xdtantra by S'arva-varman (of uncer- tain date), whose terminology has striking affinities with older works, especially the PriitiS~khyas, seems to have been the most inflaenti:tl of tlleee later grammars. It served as a model for the standard Piili granllnnr of Raccayana, and the native grammars of the Dravidians and Tibetans. Vopadeva's Mugdha-bodl~a, or 'Enlightenment of tlie Ignorant ', a very technical work datiug from the thilteenth century, has been, down to the present day, the Sanskrit granlniar chiefly used in Bengal. Lastly, we have the Sarasvati Siitra, or ' A1,horisms of tlie Sarasvati Grammar ', by an unknown author, a work distinguislled by lucidity as well as conciseness. There are, besides, a few works dealing with special depart- meuts of the subject, which form contributions of some impol.tance to our knowledge of Sanskrit grammar. The Phi! Sctra of -. 1 Hi:: Or:ur~rnsr, thc CrZ?~~lr~~-r.ydlircvcf?~u, has been edited by Prof. Eruno Liehiah (Leipnip, 1902). See Vienna Oriental Journal, 13, 30s-15 ; Winterndtz, GescRichte der i j ~ d i ~ c h e ~ ~ L i t t e r u t ~ ~ r , ii, p. 2 5 9 . INTRODUCTION xvii s'sntanava, composed later than the A%Iahiibhdga, but a t a time when there was still a living knowledge of the ancient accent, rules for the accentuation of nouns, not according to the method of P ~ n i n i , but with referei~ce to the finished word. As Piir~ini does not determine the gender of individual words, though lie treats of feminine suffixes and does not ignore differences of gender in general, some value attaches to works dealing with the subject as a whole, especially to Hemacandra's LiizgdnudGsa7ta, or ' Treatise on Gender '. The first Sanskrit grammar ever written by a European was composed by the German ~nissioi~ary Heinrich Roth, a native of Augsburg, who died a t Agra i n 1668, as Superior of the Jesuit College i n that city. This work was never published, but the manuscript is still preserved at Rome. Tliere is, however, in Kircher's China Illustrnta (Amsterdam, I 6 h7), pp. I 62-63, a contribution by Roth, which contains an9ccount of the Sanskrit alphabet with five tables in Devanagari characters (undoubtedly the earliest specimens of that script to be found in any book pintel l in Euiope) '. The fiist printed European Sanskrit grammar was that of Pauliiius a Saiicto Bartholomaeo, written in Latin and published a t Rome in 1790. This work was based partly on the MS. material left by a Ger~nan Jesuit missionary named Hanxleden, who died in I 732. The first scientific grammar aiming a t com- pleteness was that of Colebroolie, published in 1805. It was followed by that of Carey in 1806. The forrner work was based on Piinini, the latter on Vopadeva. The earliest Sanskrit grammar written on European principles, and therefore of most influence on the study of Sanskrit a t the beginning of the last century, was that of Wilkins (1808). Tlle most notable among his successors have been Uopp, Renfey, and TVhitney. Bopp's grammar was important owing no less to its lucidity than to i ts philological method. Bellfey was the first to combine with the traditional matelial of P in in i a treatlnent of the peculiarities of the Vedic ancl the Epic dialects. H e also largely used the aid of comparative philology for the explanation of Sanslrrit forins. The Anlerican scholar IVhituey was the first to attempt an Eee Zachariae in the Vicuna Oriental Jol~rnul, I j, 313-20. xviii INTRODUCTION historical grammar of Sanskrit by treating the Vedic language lnore fully, and explainil~g from i t the development of classical Sanskrit. The first grammar treating Sanskrit entirely from the comparative point of view is the excellent work of Prof. J. M'ackernagel, of which, however, only the first volume, dealing with phonology (1896), and the first part of the second volume (1905) treating of compounds, have yet appeared. The best lrnown of the S'inskrit grammars used in this country during the latter half of the nineteenth century are those of Monier-Williams and Max Aliiller. Both of these contain much matter derived from the native system that is of no practical utility, but rather an impediment, to the student of literary Sanskrit. All such matte: has been eliminated in the present work, not from any piejudice against the Indian grammarians, but solely with the intention of facilitating the study of the subject by supplying only such grammatical data of the actual language as have been noted by scholars d o ~ ~ n to the presenk time. Vedic forms have also been excluded, but in order to furnish Englisll and Indian students with the minimum material necessary for beginning to read works written in the older langnage, a brief outline of Vedic Grammar is given in Appendix 111. Afy recently pubIished T'edic Gmn~rnnr being too elaborate for elementary students, I hope to brillg out, as a parallel to the presel~t work. a simplified Vedic Grammar, in- cluding s ~ n t a x , which will afford beginners the same help in the study of Vedic literature as this grammar does in that of ~ansl i r i t : - Though the accent is never marked in classical Sansltrit, I have, owing to i ts philological imporklnce, ind;'cated it here ill tralisliterated words as far as it can be ascertained from Vedic texts. A short account of the Vedic accent itself will be found C O N T E N T S . . . . . . . . r , n E ~ A \ ~ x TO THIRD K1)ITIOS v-ri r DITlOS . . . . . . . . vii-is p ~ ~ ~ A C E TO SB;':COsD 1: : I s r r I 1 ~ ~ ~ ) ~ ( : ~ ~ ~ y : BTpnra follow ants 3118 precede anta-La. But the changeable Visarga (before a sibilant) occupies the place of the sibilant into \vhich it might be changed. Thus m:q antal?sthn would appear where a'ilfq antasstha might be written. 1 There is no sign for n~edial (or final) h, as this vowel is considerecl to be inherent in every coiisonant;-e.g. =Ira. Medial or final I is written before the consonant after which it is pronounced;-e.g, fq ki. Originally both Y and i were written as curves to the left and the right respectively above the consonant ; but for the sake of clear disti~lction mere later prolongecl with a vertical downward stroke, the one on the left, the other on the right. Though baaed, in nearly all cases, on ni and iiu respectively, e and o are at present, and have been since a t least 303 B.C., pronounced like the simple long vowels c and (s in nlost European languages. Though etymologically representating &i and Zu, ai and au are a t present, and have been since at least 300 B. c., pronounced as ji and Lu. The lnedialforms of the vowels are in conlbination with consonants;- e.g. k, written as follows: q ] ki, 3 Itu, 4 THE ALPHABET 6. The following table contains a complete classification (known to PBnini) of all the sol~nds of the Devaniigari alphabet according to the organs of speech employed in their articulation. 3 *a, 75 k c T ti, 3 k l , t ke, @ kai, ft 1.0, kau. In com- bination with 3 r, K and a are written at the side instead of below : ru, rn. The palatals, being largely derived from original gutturals under the influence of palatal vowels, were transliterated by Max Miiller with italicized gutturals. ' This term is a translation of the old native Sanskrit word ntlivdhanyn, 'produced in the head' (mlivtll~an), i. e. on the roof or highest point of the mouth, which is nearest tlie upper part of the head. This class of sounds, has also often been called lingusls (since Bopp). They are as a rule derived from original dentals under the influence of rt neighbouring cerebral ~p or r sound. Gutturals 0alata1s1 Cerebralb2 Dentals Labials 3 ig. h is not a semivowel, but the soft breathing corresponcling to Soft (medlss) T g j Bd d tlie guttural vowel a, which, unlike the other simple vowels, has no sen~ivowel of its own. I t is identical with the second half of the Hard (tenues) asplmtes nard I q k ' q k - h soft aspirates g-h, kc. Soft aspirates ------- 9 g - h j - '2;a-h y (1-h T b Y h - h v r n c Z t 7T t Q p * : h (Visarga) the hard breathing, corresponding to the second half of the hard aspirates k-h, kc., is regularly used at the end of a word in puusd for s or r,and before hard gutturals and labials. I n the latter case modifications of it called JihvSmBliya (' formed at the root of the tongue '), a guttural apirant ( =Germ. ch), and UpadhmSniya (' on- breathing'), the bilabial spirant f, were formerly employed, but have become obsolete. They were both written x. I t is important to note that in the above table only the letters in - a t - h P t-h Vip-h (Soft) nasals Vh f i qv n H~ard ~pi rant r : h4 By B s : h5 WL;! $ h 3 y T r 1 B v Bolt VOxe'a Short. Long Dipbthcngs. VaWH Q e V a i i till % f ~ ! . - r 3 ! J u J i ' i i I 1 0 THE ALPHABET 5 7, AnusvZra (' after-sound '), the unmodified nasal following avowel and differing fro111 the nasals given in column 5, is written \yith a dot above the letter which it follows;-e.g. katp. Before w q 1 i t is sometimes written w;-e.g. E@ Ira%. I ts proper place was originally before the sibilants and h, whence its use extended. From AnusvBra is sometimes distinguished Anuniisika (' accom- panied by a nasal'), the nasalized vo~rel. 8. I n writing the Devanfigari alphabet, the distinctive portion of each letter is written first, then the perpendicular, and lastly the horizontal line1;-e.g. F, d , ?C ta. g. Consonants to be pronounced without any vowel after them, are marked belon~ with a stroke slanting from left to right, called Viisma ('stop'). Thus ak must be written p. The only marks of ponctuation are the bigu I at the end of a half-verse or sentence, and the sign ll at the end of a verae or paragraph. The elision of W a at the beginning of a word is marked in European editions with the sign 6 called Avagraha (' separa- tion ');-e.g. ??sf@ te 'pi for 8 qfil te api. An abbreviation is indicated by the sign 0 ; thus gatam, (ga)-tena. 10. When the five nasals ale followed by consonants of their own class within a word, they are &ten, to save trouble, incor- rectly replaced by the sign for AnusvIra ;-e. g. aqkita for '-7 afikita ; kampita for ?lif@?1 kampita. In the same way final q m at the end of a sentence is oftcn wrongly written with AnnsvLra ; thus aha!, for aham. I n both cases the pronunciation remains unaffected by the substitution. columns I, a, and 7 are hard (surd, voiceless), while all the rest are soft (sonant, voiced). ' This was not originally an eiisential clement in the letter, but represents a part of the line below which the charactere were written. 6 THE ALPHABET I 1 1 11. If a consonant is Eollo\ved immediately by one or more consonauts they are all written in (I group ;-e.g. W atka; WfF& Bzrtsnya. The general principle followed in the fornlation of these conjunct consonants, is to drop the and horizontal lines except in the last letter. Most of these combina- ' tions, a i t h the esception of those transliterated n i th thick type in the subjoined list, ma>- be recognized without difficulty. Ia. The follomiug are the nlost noticeable tnodifications of simple consonants when written in conjunction with othels :- I. The conlpol~ent 1)arte are indistinguishable in 3 or a j->-a. 3 k-!-va.- I 13 THE ALPHABET 7 @I kh-ya, Ff kh-la.-W g-ya, g-la, W g-r-ya.-a gh-na, &-n-ya, FA gh-ma, ggh-ya, R gh-la.--F iil-ka, h-k-ta, il-k-t-ya, h-k-ya, Fgk-F, xi-k-6-va, xi-kha, a B-kb-ya,Fh-ga, h-g-ya, j:h-gha,a h-gh-ya, h-gh-ra, 9 h-ha, 3 il-na, 3 fi-ma, Jcl h-ya. n c-ca, c-cha, c-ch-ra, 3 c-iia, V c-ma, c-ye.- a ch-ya, ch-ra.-w j-ja, j-jha, 3 or j-iia, -* j-6-ya, 59 j-ma, S a j - y h q j-ra, 3f j-va.-q ii-ca, W 6-c-ma, 6-c-ya, fi-cha, 3 fi-ja, C-j-ya. 3 t-$a, $q-a.-q $11-ya, th-ra.-8 d-ga, 9;1 d-g-ye, (1-gha, 5 d-g11-ra, 31 (!-ma, Q 31-ya.-a dh-ya, 5 c!h-ra.- F 1;1-$8, n-!ha,= q-[Id, w~!-c!-ya, =1;1-?-ra,W q-11-r-ya, W rj-cUla, +na, @37 ~;r-ma, pya , W n-va. t-ka, FJ t-k-la, FT t-ta, W t-t-ya, TT t-t-ra, t-t-va, 3 t-tha, t-na, ZTl t-n-ya, W t-pa, t-p-ra, 'iJl t-ma, TRT t-111-ya, 3 t-xa, 8 or t-ra, 57 t-r-ya, a t-va, t-sa, 33 t-s-ua, t-s-n->-a.--W th-ja.-s (1-ga, (1-g-ra, a d-gha, (1-gh-ra, a-da, Q cl-d-ya, a-aha, W (1-dh-ya, 3 d-na, d-ba, g d - b h a , SI cl-bh-ya, 3 d-ma, 3 d - y a , g d-ra, d-r-ya, $ (1-va, B cl-v->-a.-33 dh-na, %4 dh-u-ya, Wl dh-ma, dh-ya, U dh-ra, W clh-r-ja, W (Ih-va.-?l n-ta, n-t-ya, ?3 n-t-ra, 11-(la, 'ijC n-d-ra, iV n-dha, W n-dh-ra, 8 n-na, ;P n-pa, a u-13-ra, a n-ma, s9 n-ya, a u-ra, n-sa. TI P-ta, PT 11-t-,a, 51 p-Aa, QT p-pa, W P-ma, r4 pya , ll p-ra, 8 p-la, rii 11-va, p-sa, rF3 p-s-va.-q b-gha, b-ja, b-cla, W b-dha, 3 b-na, h-ha, W b-bhs, =W b-bh-ya, b-?a, jii b-ra, 8 51-va.-U hh-na, XI bh-ya, Y bh-ra, W bh-\a.-a nl-na, W m-pa, 5( nl-p-la, W 111-ha, m-bha, In-ma, 9 111-la, a m-ra, rn-la, W m-va. 8 THE ALPHABET I 14 'al Pya, W y-~a.-W I-ka, I-pa, W 1-ma, I-ya, 1-la, W 1% Ft$ 1-ha.-q v-na, v - ~ a , v-ra, v-va. i-ca, ?ZT d - ~ - ~ a , 3 i-na, s'-ya, i-ra, Sq h y a , ;-la, ST i-va, W 6-v-ga, W i-ia.-& ?-$a, s-t-ya, W s-t-ra, a 5-t-r-ya, 5 s-t-va, B s-$ha, W! ?-?a, W ?-pya, 9 a-pa, W @-p-].a, W ;@-ma, El s-ja, W s-va.-Fii s-ka, s-kha, tit 8-ta, fi9 s-t-ga, s-t-ra, F$ s-t-va, s-tha, W s-na, W s-niya, pl s-pa, Wi s-pha, W s-ma, s-m-ya, s-ya, s-ra, s-va, s-sa. 6 h-n& a h-na, W h-ma, h-)a, h-ra, h-la, h-va. 14. The numerical figures in Sanskrit are- 9 9 B S G c Q o I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 These figures were borrowed from the Inclians by the Arabs, who introduced them into Enrope. Pronunciation. 15. The following rules should be noted :- r. The vowels are pronounced as in Italian. The short V a, however, has rather the sound of the so-called neutral vo~vel in English, like the u in ' but.' I t had this sound ( i ~ i Sanskrit samvyta, 'closed') at least as early as 300 B.C. a. The aspiration of the consonants stould be heard distinctly. Thus W = k-h in ' ink-horn '; q= t-h in ' pot-house '; q=p-h in ' topheavy '; 8 = g - h in ' loghouse' ; w=d-h in ' madhouse '; S= b-h in ' ~obhonse. ' 3. The guttural h has the sound of ng in ' king.? 4. The palatals T'c and Sl j havk the sound of ch in 'church,' and of j in 'join.' 1 15 THE ALPHABET 9 5- The cerebrals are pronounced similarly to the so-called dentals t, d, n in English, the tongue being, however, turned rather further back against the roof of the mouth. 6. The dentals in Sanskrit are at the present day pronounced as inter-dentals, being prodnced by bringing the tip of the tongue against the very edge of the front teeth. In the days of the ancient Indian phoneticians they were pro- nounced as post-dentals, being prodnced at the back of the upper front teeth. 7. The dental q s sounds like s in 'sin,' the cerebral y~ like 6h in ' shun ' ; while the palatal is produced midway between the tn-o, being the sibilant pronounced in the same place as the spirant in the German ' ich.' 8. The Visvga, being a final hard breathing, is in India generally pronounced as a hard h, follo~ved by a short echo of the preceding vowel. 9. The AnusvBra, being a pure nasal unmodified by any stop, is sounded like n in the French ' bon! 10. Since about the beginning of our era Sanskrit has been pro- nounced with a stress accent (instead of the earlier musical accent) much in the same way as Latin. Thus the stress is laid on a long penultimate ( ~ ~ i i l i d s a ) , on the antepenulti- mate when follored by a short syllable (~im$laya), and on the fourth from the end when two short syllables follow (kfira3'ati). t CHAPTER I1 RULES OF SANDHI OR EUPRONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS 16. I n Sanskrit every sentence is trenteci as one unbroken chain of syllables. The coalescence of final and initial letters is called Sandhi ('putting together'). The rules of Salidl~i ale basedchiefl~ on the avoiaance of hiatus and on assimilatio-n. The absence of Sandhi is i n nlan) cases sufficient to mark the stops which in other languages have to be lllarked 11y punctuation. Though both are Based on the came l~honetic principles, it i s essential, in order to avoid confusion, to distinguish external Sandhi, nhich determines the changes of final and initial letters of wortls, from internal Sandhi, which applies f o the final letters of verbal roots and no,t~inal stems when follo~ved by certain suffixes or terminations. a. The rules of external Sandhi apply, \\.it11 few exceptions (which are survivals of an earlier stage of external Sandhi), to words forining compounds, and to the final letters of nominal stems before the Pada or middle case-endings WPT. bhyZm, fi.Tq bhis, bllyas, ?J su (71), or beforo secondary (182, 2) huffises begiuuing with any ccnsollant exccljt q y . A. Edernrtl Sandhi. Classification of Vowels. 17. V o ~ e l s ale divided into- A. I. Sinlplevo~vels: q a , m i i ; T i , f i ; 3% 5;: %!,%?; q!. . v k + v v 2. G ~ q a 1one19: a ; e ; @ 0; a r ; V3,al. 3. Vrddhi v o ~ e l s : 2 : 3 ai. nu; 5r1. The ~Fcldhi fvrm of St ! ( ~ l l i c h rrvidtl lie m?!f.aI, doe6 not occur. I1 19 RULES OF SANDHI I I a. Guna ('secondary form') is the strengthening of the simple voxels by a ireceding a (which leaves 3l a itself un- changed) ; Vrddhi ('increase') is t he flirther strengthening of Guna vowels by means of another 9 a B. I. Van-els which are liable t o be changed into seiilivowels : Ti, 9 i ; J u, 5 ti : '&. r, r, and the diphthongs (the latter half of which is i or J ti) : l iql~icl \on-els. 2. Those \\hich are not : 94 a, TIT ii. Combination of Final and Initial Vowels. 18. If the snme simple vowel (sho1.t or long) occurs at the end and beginniug of ~vords, the result is a long vowel ;-e. g , wq s% api iksate 1,euonles l3Tcite siipik!irte ; f*7j eft kimtri otleti l~ecorneij f*v? ki1;itiideti ; @ -3 liart,r yjn becomes ~ 6 5 J karttju. E 19. V a and W a- a. coalesce uith n follo~\ing simple liquid rowel t o Guns ;-e.g. Wq S,T: t a n indralJ=?i&: tavendral! ; QT J S T sE nkt\ i i = ~375~ soktva ; BT %!&: s;L ?ddhil! = B e : sarddhil~. 6. coalesce with G u ~ p t ~ o ~ \ e l s to Vytldlii ;-e. g. 3B TB t a w cva =*B tavaiva ; BT WY: sa osadhili = w?~R: sausadbil~. C. :,re ahsorbed by Vrdrihi vowels ;-e. g. W %w* sii -- - - . -.- . a n t s u l ~ y a v a t i = ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ssantsukynvati. I n this rowel gradation, ns Comparative Philology shows, the Cuna vo\vel reprecents the nor~nnl stage, from which the simple vowel was reduced by loss of accent, while V ~ d d h i s n lengthelledvariety of G u p . The reduction of the iyllables qn, va, ra (which are parallel with thc Guqa stage) to the coneil~onding ~o\vels i, u, r is ternled Gainpmslra~p ('distraction '). I 2 EXTERNAL VOWEL SANDHI I1 2 0 20. A simple liquid vowel followed by any other vowel or by a diphthong is changed into its sedivowel ;-e. g. @ dadhi a t r a = w dadhy atra ; @ J?I k a r t ~ uta =efl kartr uta ; SQ I(iV madhu iva = 9lm? madhv iva ; Wf& nadi artham =q&nadyartham. 21. The G u ~ a vowels P e and a o- a. remain unchanged before V a, which is elided : ?i wq te api=34fV te 'pi ; ~3 so api =*sf$ RO 'pi. b. become 9 a (through y a y and W - a v , which drop the semivowel) before every other vowel (or diphthong) : B$ sakhe i h a = W sakha iha; g).if a prabho ehi= prabha ehi. 22. The V:ddl~i vovels 3 ai and au reipectively become W 5 (through T l y S y ) and Wq,iiv (the semivowel not being dropped in this case) before every vowel (or diphthong): fjq?it iriyai * r t h @ = m aPf: irij5i arthab; 7f)' tau iti= mF?l% tav iti. a. The (secondary) hiatus occasionecl by the dropping of q y and YV i n the above three cases (21 b and 22) remains. Irregular Vowel Sandhi. 23. V~ddhi nitead of Gnna results from the contraction of- a. a preposition ending i n B a or % with a verb beginning with ;- e.g. upa rsati=Wl&?l np%rsati ; 2 ?cchati=* Brcchati. b. the preposition T4 pra with the perfect participle passive SS 6dha (from vah, 'carry9): praudha, 'lifted up.' 0. the augment a with an initial vowel;-e.g. a Wfq a mat=% annd, 'he wetted' (from ud, 'wet'). I1 2 7 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI I3 Absence of Vowel Sandhi. 24. Interjectional particles consisting of or ending in vowels, such as W 8, i, J u,? he, ?& aho, are not liable to Sandhi : q i indra, ' 0 Indra'; W t?v 5 evam, 'is i t so indeed?' m? aho apehi, '04, go away.' 25. The vo~\els f 7, W ii, Q e, when dual terminations, nominal or verbal, remain unchanged before vowels (q a not being elided after this dual Q e) ; they are called Pragrhya (' separate '). The final of d am!, a nom.plural (of the pronoun asan, I I ~ ) , is treated in the same way. ' E. g. kavi imau, 'these two poets ' ; q* sah i i imau, 'these two merchant8 ' ; ii3f vidye ime, 'these two sciences'; e y z c e t e artham, 'they two ask for money'; w: ami aivsb, 'those horses.' 26. I n the Epics, the lav-books, and other works not strictly conforming to the classical utaudard, vowel Sandhi is seldom applied between the first and second line (PBda) of a hemistich, Combination of Final and Initid Consonants. 27. The rules of Sandhi are only applicable after the final con- sonant of a word has been reduced to one of the eight allowable ' (actually occurring) consonants at the end of a wordin paus5,viz. : q k, ? $ 2 ?It' and : (Visarga). $ 6 , T n , T m The thirty-four consonants given in the table (6) are reduced to these eight, as follows : A final must be hard and unaspirated, the palatals (including 6) and h are replaced by Jy k or t (Ti? by b), as by t, T, s and 3 r by Visarga, while q p , y y , TI, and V,v do I4 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 11 28 not occur. Thus the second, thild, and fourth columni, as ~vell as the seconcl line (the palatals), disappear entiiely, leaving only four tennes i n the first, three nasals i11 the fifth, and Visarga alone in the sixth and seventh. 28. No \\old may end in more than one consonant, except nhen 3 r precedes a final k, ;I t, ij t, r i p , which is radical (or substituted for a ~aclical) and not a suffix. Ia the case of all other colllbinations the final letter or letters must be dropped till only one, in the form allowable as a final, remains. Thus Y'ilW. bhavant-s beco~lles bbavan, ' being ' ; nbihhar-t= VRV: abibhal~, ' he carried ' (q t is a suffix ; 3 r must become Tisarga) ; but urk, ' strength ' (q k snbstitutecl for radical 3-j); qe amsrt, ' he niped,' from %Jl.rn~j (3 t sn1,stituted for radical 3.j). Classification of Consonants. 29. Place or organ of articulation. I. The throat, the palate, the roof of the m o ~ ~ t h , the teeth, the lips, and the nose are called the places or organ? of articulation. 2. By contact between the tongue ancl the four places-throat, palate, roof, teeth-the guttural, palatal, cerebral, and dental consonants are formed. Labial consonants are formed by contact between the lips. 3. I n forming the nasals of the five classes, the breath partially passes throngh the nose ahile the tongue or the lips are in the positipn for articulating the corresponding tenuis. The real AnnsvLra is formed in the nose only, while the tongue is in the position for forming the particular vowel .which the AnusvPa accoml~anies. I1 30 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SAISDHI I5 4. The semivowels r9 y, T r, FI 1, B 1' are palatal, cerebral, dental, an11 l%bial respectively. They are clescribed by the old Indian g~amn~arians as produced by partial or imperfect contact of the tongue with the organ of articulation. 1 often interchanges with or is derived from T r. 5. The three sibilants are hard spirants produced by partial contact of the tongue nith the. palate, roof, and teeth respectively. Sanskrit has not preserved any of the corresponding soft sibilants (English z, French j ) . 6. % h and : are resl~ectively soft and hard spirants produced without any contact, and articulated in the position of the vowel ~qhich precedes or follows. h, corresponding to the second half of the soft aspilates g-h, j-h, d-11, b-h, from which it is in fact derived, occurs only before soft letters. Visarga, corresponding to the second half of the hard aspirateq (k-h, &c.), occurs only after vo~vels and before certain hard consonants. In India Visarga is usually articulated as a haid h, follored by a very short echo of the preceding von7el;-e. g. q: ka1>=kaha, iiifv: kavih=kavihl ; -3: Itu!l=Ftuhu. 30. Quality of consonants. Oonsonants are- I. either hard (surd, voiceless) : columns I , 2, 7 in the table, P. 4 ; or soft (ionant, voiced) : all the rest (columns 3, 4, 5, 6) and AnusvLa (besides all the vowels and diphthongs). 2. either aspirated : colulnns z, 4, 7 , besides 5 11 (in 6) ; or maspirated : all the rest. Hence the change of y c to a k is a change of place (palatal to gutfural), and that of Ff c to 51\ j is a change of quality (hard to soft); whila the change of Ff c to T,g (hard palatal to soft I 6 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 11 31 guttural), or of i f t to 51,j (hard dental to soft palatal) is one of both place and quality. 31. It is essential to remember that consonant Sandhi cannot be appliedtill finals have been reduced to one of the eight allon- able letters (27). The latter are then modified without reference to their etymological value (except partially in the case of Visarga). Only six of these finals occur at all frequently, viz. k, i f t , q n , y p , q m, and Visarga. The changes which final consonants undergo are most conveniently treated with reference to (I) their quality, (11) their place or organ. I. Changes of Quality. ,32. Final 'consonants must be soft before soft initials, and hard before hard initials. a. This rule affects only the five final hard consonants (j k,3 t, if t, p, and : h), the nasals ( 6 ; 36) not being liable to changes of quality (but two of them,qn ,qm, areliable to changes of place, like the two hard sounds q t and Visarga : 37). Hence final g k, 3 t, ?I t, y p before sonants become T,g, d, 3 d, q b respectively ;-e. g. -= S m samyag nktam, ' well said ' ; Tq: = @la: dig-gajah, ' world-elephant.' - PfC- Fsmq = parivrsd ayam, 'he (is) a mendicant ' ; - = P f ~ a ~ ; a q f ? ( parivr8d gacchati, ' the mendicant goes.'-- = sarid atra, 'the river here'; qmq:=qm: mahad-dhanuh, ' a large bow.'--- W = -7 kaknb atra, ' a region here'; ay51: =W: ab-jab, 'born in m-ater.' 33. F k, 5 t, q t, q p, when followed by initial T n or q m, may, and in practice almost invariably do, become the corresponcl- ing nasals fi, qn, q n , q m ;-e. g. fm TPl; =@lVI: or I1 36 EXTERNAL CONSONANT XANDRI I7 m: dig-niigal~ or clih-nzgah, ' norld-elephant ' ; 5PR( 9m: = qmT$: or 3-W: jagad-n5thab or jagan-niithap, ' lord of the world ' ; 8? !:W: = W m : ?an-mlsah, ' period of six months ' ; XTq m: = w: pr;ii~-mnkhah, 'facing the east.' 34. Final ?f, t before 3,l becomes 3.1 (through 3 d) ;-e. g. qq Fl;kVq=mqqtal labclham, ' that is taken.' 35. Since the nasals hare nu colresponding haicl letters, they remain unchanged in quality befuie haicl letters ; but i n seve~al cases a sibilant (after q n ) or cognate hard letter (after 7 n or $ fi) is inserted between the tno. An original palatal 7 ii or cerebral q v never occurs as a final letter (2'7). The guttmal $ h, nhich is rare as a final, remains unchanged in that position, but k may be inseited after it before the three sibilants ;-e. g. ift priih iete or piiirik dete, 'he lier eastraid.' Final q m i5 liable to change before all consonxnts (42). Final dental q n remains unchanged before most lettns, but is modified before all palittals and ceiebrals (except B.s), before the hard dentals q t and q,th, and before the semivo~rel q.1. I ts t ~ e a t - ment requires a some~vhat detailed statement. 36. A. The dental nasal q n reinains unchanged- I. before vo~vels (cp. 52) ;-e. g. ?rrq W? tan uvaca,' he spoke to them.' 2. before all gutturals, Z@ k, q.kh, q g , a g h , as well as $ h ;- e.g. *$fi buddhimzn ko 'pi, ' a certain j~ i se nlat~'; ll;FTT tiin hat~rii, 'having slain them.' 3. before all the labials, p, llh, q,b, y b h , q ni ;-e. g. q?1Tq rlmm etan p l k n , ' these bonds ' ; im bEndhavEn mama, ' niy relatives.' 4. before the soft dental8 3 d, dl], n ;-e.g. I 18 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 11 36 rnatsgdn dhatta, ' pnt the fish' ; nJ1Ym - 1iijaput18n naj-ati, 'he leads the princes.' 5. before the sernivonels q,g, J r, i9_ v ;-e. g. &TT wm hamsiin laksati, 'he protects the geese.' 6. before the cereb~al gs and the dental q F, but before the latter a transitional t nlay be inselted ;--e. g. ?ITq tiin ef, ' those six '; B@ tZn d a t e or TF?W@ tent sahate, ' he end~ues them.' B. The dental nasal q n is changed- I. before the ha1 d palatal c and ch; celebral $ ancl ;F th ; dental ?ft ancl Y t h , to Anusviira, a palatal 7 6 , a cerebral F ---- 8, s, a clental s being respectively interposed ' ;-e. 6. qm hasan c a k Z ~ a = ~ ~ ~ ilasaqd cakiira, 'he did i t laughing ' ; - 3 ~ lCi&n chett~un = 9~*- ml~di img chettum, 'to cot the bonds'; calan ti$tibhah = -B: calams ti$tibhah, ' a moving sandpiper ' ; qm m: patan t w d j = rl?im: patams taruh, ' a falling tree.' 2. before the soft palatals q.j, a j h , and the palatal sibilant 7 s', to palatal 7 K (40). 3. before the soft cerebrals ? 51 and dh to the cerebral RQ (41). 4. before the semivoael m.1 to nasalized Cl. 1 nritten with AnilsvH~a in the forin of ;-tag. T(ZT7 F(W: mahSin lnbhab = mahid lgbhnh. This seemingly inserted sibilant is really a snrvival of the Indo- European a of the rnasc. accusative (in a s ) and the nominative singular (in-na : cp.88 ; 89). I n the oldestvedic pe~iod this sibilant appears only where it is historically justified, but in Sanshrit its use has been extended to the Sandhi of all cases of final n before haril palatals, cerebral\ and dentals. I1 40 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI I9 11. Changes of Place. 37. The only four final consonants liable to change of place are the dental t and 7 n, the labial R. m, and Visarga. a. 7"le dentals become palatal and cerebral before palatals and cerebials respecti~elg. b. Visarga and, to a less extent, q n i adapt themselves to tho organ of the follo\\ing consonant. 1. Final qt. 38. Final ?(t before palatals ( y e , ch, q.j, q.$h, 6 ) i:, changed to a palatal (y c oor 'S'j) ;-e.g. 7lq q=?ljir tac ca, 'and that'; qf@ff%=m t ~ c chinatti, 'he cuts that'; w ~ = M taj j;ijate, 'that is buln ' ; flq (flqwq tac ;goti, but in llractice) vq?m tac clipoti l , ' he hear. that.' 39. Final ?(t before Z_ t, ? $11, 9 (1, F (jh (l~ut not l~efole B,s) is changed to a cerebri~l (? (1 01 9 clh) ;-e. g. mq q T : = Qm: eta$ thakknrab, 'the idol of him'; flq 3-=* ta? clayate, ' i t flies ' ; 3% $hi8 = tad (jhaukate, ' it approache..' 2. Final T n. E 40. Final y n before J? j, P,jh, and T, 4 "wcomes 7 jl ;- e.'g. mT -71 = mm tzn jdyati, ' he conquers them ' ; my qli@!fF(=TT* taii ;ardkltin or ~ ~ T S S T @ ~ T ~ ti% chZrdiil5n I , 'those tigers.' 1 Il'ith the further change of the initial 4 to the corresponding aspirate 9 ch, clx j3. For the change of q n before the hard palatals 7 c and ch, s e e 3 6 E I . 0 2 20 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 11 41 41. Final qbefore? a,? ah1 (but not q.s) is changed t o q n ; - e. g. ~ V ~ : = ~ ~ ~ : ma& damarab, 'a g e a t uproar.' 3. Final q m. 42. A. Final q m remains uncheuged before vowels ;-e. g . m = kim atra, ' what (is) here ? ' B. Final m is changed to AnusvBra before consonants : , I, necessarily before semivowels, sibilants, and 8 h ;-e. g. aq=e* taqveda, ' lknomhim'; -m=m karunap raditi, 'he cries piteously '; = 3% m o k p v seveta, ' one should devote oneself to salva- tion '; = S)Ji; madhuram hasati, ' he laughs sweetly.' 2. optionally before mutes and the nasals q n , q m2 (6, cols. 1-5)' "here it may become the class nasal3 (a change which is rarely made in European editions);-e.g. fBiq m=f% (or m) kim karosi (or kih karbsi), 'what doest thou ? ' 5l@ = 3~3 31f$$ (or m) Satrup jahi (or b'atrnd jahi), ' kiII the enemy '; mq=f% (or f%- m) kim phalam (or kim phalam), 'what (is) the use?' m? =9% (or -8) gurum llamati (or gnrun nanlati), ' he salutes the teacher' ; = me (or m e ) 68stram mim5ipsate (or &istram mirnsqsate), 'he studies the book.' a. This alternative Sandhi of final q i n is identical with that On the treatment of q n before the hard cerebral8 t, $h, and q.7, gee 36 A 6 a n d I3 I. "nitial h, 9 fi, );1 do not occur. This nssimilation was the nol~nai Sandhl of the Vedic fnnguage. 11 44 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 2 1 of final 7 n before the soft palatals q j , jh (40), the soft . cerebrals 3 a and dh (41), and the dental 7 n ; and with that of final q t before 7 n (33) ; thus e . g. in m m 9 k5ntZn na the first word may represent the acc. pl, nlasc. w- WTq kBlltEn (36 A 4), the abl. sing. masc. m m k8ntBt (33). or the acc. sing. fem. m q l r B n t B ~ n (42 B 2). 4. Final Visargs. 43. Viqarga is the spirant to which the hard q s and the cor- responding soft 3 r are reduced in pausi. If followed by a hard letter- r . a palatal, cerebral, or dental (y c, ch ; ? $, ? $h ; q t , Y t h ) , it is changed to the sibilant (qi , as, q s ) of the class to which the follovring letter belongs ;-e.g. @: m=dw: p6rFai candrab, 'the full moon ' ; 51m: ? j t ~ q = mq nadyss tiram, ' the bank of the river.' 2. a guttural or labial (q Ir, q - k h , T( p, ph), i tremains unchanged1 ;-e.g. qTS: tatal? kZmaQ, ' thence love ' ; 9-QT: ... _FTV. nadyiib param, ' the opposite shore of the river.' 3. a sibilant, i t remains unchanged or may be assimilated2;- e.g. 93: fq3: snptah &dub or ' the child is asleep'; WS: d: prLthamah sargah or f@ml&: prathamas ~argab, ' the first canto.' 44. Visarga (except wfwn preceded by a a or 3) if followed by a soft letter (consonant or vowel) is changed to 3 r ;-e. g. sllfil: w=afBmq kavir ayam, ' this poet '; ~ 3 : -= -3 gaur gacchati, 'the cow valks ' ; q: qfl=TQ- *m vIiyur vEti, ' the wind blows.' ' Cp. the treatment of q n before hard mutes, 36 A 2, 3 ; B r . This assimilation warr undoubtedly the original Sandhi, and ia required by some of the ancient Vedic phoneticians. 22 EXTERNAL CONSONAST SANDIII 11 45 45. I. The final syilable W: El! drops itsyieargn 1)efore vowels 0soft consoaanta;-e.g. TVT: P * = ~ T qiT? a& a ~ n i , those horses'; m: wBq:=mmT T$q: Zgnfii ~sayalj , ' t he ~ o e t s h a w arrived '; t$?fT: WT: =$qT q3T: hat% gajal). ' the elephants (are) killect '; q T : %: = mfH: n l ~ ~ - l i h i l ~ , instr. plur. of q T q 1 1 6 3 , ' n~oon.' 2. The final syllable 8: a$- a. drops its TTisarga before ~ o w e l s except T a ;-e.g. 33: WW: =gn qm: lilita Kgatal!, 'whence come ? ' q: W:=q m: lia e?ah. ' nho (is) 11r !' q: wfi:=q lia ysilj, ' who (is) the poet I ' b. before soft consonants and before q a, is c~linngetl l t i 3 O. after \\.hicll l a is elided (21 a ) ;--~*71: @P: = m'i?$ m: Hnito dip:,). ' t he lamp (has been) b~ongh t ' : UW f%: =iTsiff&: ~iiano-Lhi1.1, inst. plilr. 'with minds '; 9T: % ' Q R , = ~ ~ S W unro ' y sn~ , ' this mall.' - j46.."l.lle fi11n1 syllal,les %: al! and W: Bl), in the fen. inslrtnces' L i n wllich the T'isarga represe~lts an etymological I., are not snllject to t he csceptional 1.11le stared in 45. I n other words a: al) and W: %I!, reverting to ar and 5ir, in this case follow the general rule (44). Thus g: a = 9 9 * puna.r api, ' even again ': 3;rrT: -$$F=w~ bhrZtar dehi. ' l,rother, give'; q: q$T = ~ B T drHr e g , ' this door.' -6 147.) 3 r folloned 11y r i~ always dropped, a 1,receding sliort u -F- ~ o v e l 1,elng Iengthenrd ;-e. g. f ~ : ~ T ~ = R X T T * vidhG 7- - IJqT punar, ' again,' RTaT yrrttar, 'early,' antar, ' \{xi tlliii' ; s%ar, ' heaven,' qm ahar, ' day,' dviir, ' door,' q q viir, ' water '; roc. sing. of ~ ~ o n n s in :, as fray pitar, ' father' (101) ; and some forms of verbs in 7, ns mq ajiigar, 2. 3. sing. imperf. of jlgr, ' al~abe.' 11 51 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 23 ~Bjate, 'the moon shines ' ; 97: ~?$?=g?lT puns rogi, ' ill again.' 48. The tvo pronouns 8: salj, that,' and 98: esal~, 'this ' ( 1 1 0 a), retain Tisarga at the end of a sentence only, but become q? so and T@ eso Before 7 a (45, 2 b) ;--e. g. 8: wft =a wft sa dadzti, he gives ' ; 8: m: =q qgi: sa Indrah, 'that Indra'; but fl: q T = * b ~ q ? f so "havat, ' he mas'; v: B : m ~ t a h sab, ' he (is) dead.' 49. )it: I3hoI>, an irregular contracted vocative (for bhavas, used as an interjection) of Vfqq bhauat, 'jou!r honour,' drops its Vi;isal.ga befo~ e all vo~vels and soft consonants ; -e. g. ~ 3 : fm=~? k 9 bho i i ~ ~ t a , ' 0 lord ': *: -:=a aq~: bho deviib, ' 0 gods '; but ~ 3 : m: =-: bhod chettalj, 0 cutter.' a. The same rrde applies to the contracted vocative mf: bhagoh (for bhagavas) from )mq7f bhagavat, ' adorable one.' 50. Nouns ending in radical r (82) retain the 3 r before the 3 su of the loc. pl. ;-e. g. + q = q $ v8r-su, ' in the waters.' a. mx ahar (91 , 2 N.) and FIT svar (indeclinable) retain their 3 r when compounded with Pf?l pati : ~ ~ b f ? ! : ahai-patib, ']old of day,' -rff?l: svar-patih, ' lord of heaven.' Doubling of Consonants. 51. ch at the beginning of a word may always be doubled after vowels; it mnst be so after a short vo\~el and after the particles ti and 'FlT mG ;--e. g. ?lq VTm = im q T m tavrt cchSiyIi, ' thy shade ' ; W mwf% =W ~ T ~ P ~ % BcchBdayati, 'he covers'; m = m mm mii ccbidat, 'let him not cut '; but qmq badari-c1GyL or q m badari- cchZy8, ' shade of jujube trees.' 24 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 11 52 a. In the body of a nord the doubling takes place after all vowels : - icchati,'he wishes ' ; %-: mlecchah, ' barbarian.' 52. Final $ h and 7 n, prececled by a bhort ~orrtr l and followed b y a q vowel (or diphtllong), ate doubled;-e.g. = pratyailii Bste, ' he sits vestnard ' ; YT-$T m: = W m 3 dhzvasn ahah, ' a running horse'; but k a ~ i n Bhvayasva, 'call the 1 oets,' remains. Initial Aspiration. 53. Initial Ti, not followed by a hard consonant, may be, and in practice nearly always is, changed to the corresponding aspirate ch after T c (38) and 7 fi (40) ;:e. g. m?$@@'l= -31 tac chlokena, 'by that verse '; W-$T qq: =qmwqT: dhiivnfi" chahh, ' a running hale.' a. The same change is allorred after T k, 5 t, y p , though not usnally applied : -$- viik-iatam may become m m viik-chatam, ' a hundred speeches.' 54. Initial 3 h, after softening a preceding k, t, Tt, q p , - is changed to the soft aspirate of the preceding letter;-e. g. @='~T@B vZig ghi, ' for speech'; flq fS=?lfq tad dhi, ' for that.' 55. If q g h , Y dh, y b h , or $ h are at the end of a (radical) . syllable beginning with q g , 5 cl, q,b, and lose their aspiration as final or otherwise, the initial consonants are aspirated by way of compensation1;-e. g. xT duh, ' a milker,' beconies Yq dhuk; m b u d h , &e,' becomes 37( bhut. 1 This is an historical survival of the original initial aspiration of such roots, which was lost (both in Greek and Sanskritj by the operation of the later euphonic law that prohibited a syllrtble beginning and ending with an aspirate. Hence when the find aepirate disappeared the initial returned. Cp. Gk. nom. 9pif ( = ~ ~ I K - s ) , (hair,' beside gen. TPIX-6s. 11 59 INTERNAL SANDHI 25 B. Internal Sandhi. 56. The rules of internal Sandhi apply to the finals of nominal and verbal stems before all terminations of declension (except those beginning with consonants of the nlicldle stem : 73 a) and conjugation, before primary suffixes (18a, I), and before secondary suffixes (182, a ) beginning n-ith a vowel or y y . They are best acquired by learning paradigms of 1101:ns and verbs first. Many of these r~iles agree with those of external Sandhi; the most important of those which differ from external Sandhi are here added. Final Vowels. 57. I n many cases before a vovel (and even the same vowel) ~i a n d ~ i a r e ~ h a n ~ e d t o ~ i y ; J u a n d W i i t o ~ u v ; -1 to Q ir (cp. 18 and 20) ;-e,g. a dhi+ .g;i=m dhiy-i, loc. sing., ' in thought'; #+y i=m bhnv-i, ' on earth'; m+B: YII-~II + ul.~=m: yo-yov-ah, 'they have joined'; 7+ gj + a t i = m gir-ati, ' he svallo~vs.' 58. Final before consonant terminations is changed to ir, after labials to iir; while y (after a single con- sonant) before y y becomes fC ri (154,3);-e. g. 7 gf, passive pres. 3. sing. gir-yate, ' is si~alloved'; gir-nah, past paqs. part., ' swalloired'; 7 fi, pass. pres. pfir-yate, ' is filled'; past part., ~: par-nab, 'filled'; B ky, pass. pres. kri-yate, ' is done.' 59. P e, ai, o, au are changed before suffixes beginning with vowels or q, y to W , a y , m & y , W,av, W,&V respectively (21 ; zz) ; -e. g. 4 + Wl= nay-ana, 'eye9; T + Q = ~ % riiy-e, 'for wealth'; * + v = e gav-e, 'for auow'; *+~:=m: n~v-ab, 'shiP8'; f i + q : = ~ : gav-yt&, 'relating to cows.' 26 INTERNAL CONSONART SANDHI 11 6 0 Final Consonants. 60. The most notable dibergence from exte~nal Sandhi is the unchangeableness of the final consonants (cp. 32) of ~ e r b a l and nominal stems before terminations beginning with rowels, semi- vowels, and riasalsl (nhile before other letters they usually follow the rules of external Sandhi) ;-e.g. mq: p18fic-a1.1, ' easteln ' ; mfi vac-Zni, ' let me speak,' v8c-ja, ' to be spoken,' I 6- vac-mi, ' I speak ' ; but ~ f ? 4 i yak-ti, 'he speaks.' 61. Nominal or verbal stems ending in consonants, and followed by terminations consisting of a single consonant, drop the ter- mination altogetlier, two consonants not being tolerated at the end of n word (28). The final consonaut nhich reinains is then treated according to the rules of external Sandhi. Thus m'+ q prZfic+s, nom. sing., 'eastern,' becomes llv prZh (the q s being first dropped, the palatals being changed to gutturals by 27, and the k being then dropped by 28) ; similarly W@+ a-doh+t =- a-dhok (55), 3. sing. imperf., ' he milked.' 62. Aspirates followed by any letters except vowels, semi- rowels or nasals (60) lose their aspiration ;-e.g. ~ + 9 rundh+dhve=vqrund-dhve ', ' p u obstruct'; w+@ labh+ aye=- lap-sye, ' I shall take' ; but yudh-i, ' in battle,' *: lobh-yah, ' to be desired.' 3 d is assimilated before the pril~ary suffix 7 -na ;-e.g. in an-na, ' food ' (for a+a) ; and q t, 5 d before the secondary suffixes qilq mat and ma.ya ;-e. g. fqq vidxun-mat, accompanied by lightning' (vidyut), and VZl mm-maya, 'consisting of clay' (md). For Sanskrit tolerates two aspirates neither at the beginning and end of the same syllable, nor at the end of one and the beginning of the next. I1 63 INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 27 a. A lost soft aspirate is, if possible, thronn 11ac:lr Before W,dhr (not f~ dhi), YI,h, q s , according t o 55;-e.g. ay5q a-bhud- cllr\~am, ' yon ohserred,' $f$: bhud-bhih, inst. plur., tJarU b h n t - su, loc. plur., but ~ f i w dug-rlhi, 2. sing. ii~iper.! 'milk.' b. But it is thrown for~a1.d on a follo\ving q t and y t h rrhich are softened ;--e. g.Fly+fl: labh +tah=WW: lab-dhal!,'talien ' ; w+W: rundh + tllal? =-: rund-dha1.1, ' you tv;o obstruct'; + ?& bandll+tnm = hand-dhum, to bhd.' 63. Palatals. a.lThile g c regularly becomes guttnral before couuonants (cp. 61 : 27 ; 6, s.I), 3l, j in some cases (the majority) becomes gntt~imal ( q k . ~'g)~, in other< cerebral ( i t , {l, gs) ;- e.g. V s iiuli-ta, ' spoken ' (from sTg lac) ; 33 yuk-ta, 'joined ' (from ?Jq,~-uj); lug-qa, 'broken' (from q3l, ~ u j ; cp. 6 5 ) ; bat =r@, nom. sing. ' Icing ' (for lJ31,+q rZj + b ) ; my?- (!hi, 2. sing.impei . ' n ipe ' (fiom qjr \mrj ) ; - rBs-tra, 'lcingdom' (from q3 l , r5 j , cp. 64). b. yd, before y d h , the middle telminations (73 a) and the nom. q s . usilally becomes 3 t or J_ (1 (sometimes k or T,g); before . q t , q,th, i t always becolnes q.5 (cp. 64), and before the q s of the f u t u ~ e aud of other conjugational forms, always k;-e.g. from fm vi; n.e get fm ri t-su, 'in the settlers '; fm rig-ta, ' entered' ; %w@ vek-~y i ln~ i (cp. 67), ' I shall enter.' c. c and Jl, j (not i) palatalize a following 7 n ;-e. g. ' 9 q + W y Z c $ n H = m j ~ c - i i ~ , ' r e ~ t l e ( . t ' ; W,+qya j+na= '9- yaj-fia, ' saclifice ' ; but prai-nrt, 'question.' Except in the case of the root YT dh5, 'place,' \vhich has (according to the analogy of a) dhat before ?I t and Y t h (see below, 134, third class, I). 31\ j regularly becomes k before a conjugational q s (cp. 144,4). 28 INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 11 64 d. The 9 ch of the root flq prach, 'ask,' is treated like ys' : pfs-ta, 'askecl,' prak-syiimi, 'I shall ask,' pras'- na, ' question.' (In external Sandhi, i.e. when final, and before middle terminations, it becomes $ t.) 64. Cerebrals change follo~ing dentals to cerebrals (cp. 39) ;- 9.6. -,+?I i g + t a = w is-ta, 'wished' ; fi$8+& dvi?+dhi= fa dvid-dhi, 'hate'; q+'?rrq ?at+n?im = w q sa?-ciim (cp._33), 'of six.' a. While the cerebral sibilant ys regularly becomes a cerebral ($ t. or a a) in declension (cp. go), and before y dh in conjuga- tion, it regularly becomes k before an q s in conjugation (cp. 63b and 67) ; dvek-si, 'thou hatest,' from f@l.dsis. 65. Change of dental q n to cerebral n : A ~ ~ e c e d i n g cerebral ?E :, Tf , I., B,s (even though a vowel, a gnttura1,a labial, Y y , q,v, P h, or Anus~iira i~ltervene) changes a dental y n (followed by a rowel or i j n , T( m, ?( y, q, v) to cerebral t.~ ;-e. g. %+?ifq= 27!Jlq nr-nEm, ' of men ' ; d: liar-gab, ' ear ' ; W q d G s - a n a r n , 'abuse ' (a vex-el intervenes) ; 3- bytph-anam, 'nourishing3 (AnasvEra, $ h, vowel) ; db!J arkena, 'by the sun' (guttural and vowel); f-3: ksip-nub, ' throwing' (vowel andlabial) ; k premnE,'by love' (diphthong and labial); m: brahmac-yall,'kind to Brahmins ' (vo~vel, $ h, labial, vowel; i j n followed by q y ) ; m: ni:an-nab, ' aea& ' ( y n followed by q n , which is itself assimilated to l&n) ; mTQ pdyena, 'generally' (vowel, y y , vowel). But *arc-anam, ' worship' (palatal intervenes) ; m'il arcavena, 'by the ocean' (cerebral intervenes); ardhena, ' by half' (dental intervenes); kurvanti, 'they do' ( i j n is followed by q t) ; TTgTT rEmBn, acc. pl., ' the REmas ' (7 n 1 is final). 11 66 INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 29 Note.-The number of intervening letters, i t will be seen from the above examples, is not limited. In the word FTqTW SmZiyapa, for instance, Eve letters (three vofvels, a labial, and a semivowel) intervene betneen the 5 r and the a n . T a b l e showing when qn changes t o q q , f gutturals (including h), B. s V.y, and AnusvZra, 66. A. The dental q n - I. renlains uilchanged before ' i j y and 5T\v ;--e.g. han- yate, 'is killed '; q q q t a n - v - a n , 'stretching.' 2. as final of a root becomes AnnsrZra before q s ; -e. 3. ji-ghiiql-ss-ti, 'he wishes to kill' (m han); mam-sra-te, 'he will think' (-man) ; also \vheu it is inserted beforeqs or ys in the neuter plural (71 c ; 83) ;- e. g. - yas'fims-i, nom. pl. of yaks, ' fame' ; fift haviqq-i, neut. pl. of 6~ ltavia, ' oblation ' (83). B. The dental q S- I. becomes dental qt as the final of roots or no~ninal stenis :- a. before the q s of the verl~al suffises (future, aorist, desidrla- tive) in the two roots q v a s , ' d\vell,' and w g l t a s , 'eat ': vat-syati, 'will ilwell' (151 b 3); ma-v~t- sit, 'has dwelt ' (144, I); ji-ghat-sati, ' wisbcs to eat ' (171; 5). b. before the endings with initial q b h 01. q s (sucl in the uom. 30 INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 11 67 acc.sing.neut.) of reduplicated perfect stems (89) : m: caky-vad-bhib, 'WT* caky-vat-sn, N. A. n. 'mZf77 caky- vat. 2. disappears- a. between 1nutes;-e.g. vYI*m n-bhak-ta (for a-bhak-s-ta), 3. sing. s-aorist of m - b h a j , ' sliare '; cas-te (for cak- e-f.e=original ca4-s-te), 3. sing. pres. of W-caks, ' speak.' This loss also occurs when the preposition u d is com- pounded with the roots sthii, ' stand,' ant1 FliU.~jtambh, ' support ';-e.g.Bi$m nt-thxya, ' standing up ' ; m7f ut-tambhita, ' raised up.' 6. before soft dentals ;--e. g. s'z-dhi (for 6~s-dhi), 2. sing. imperat. of W ~ Z S , ' order ' ; also after beconling and cerebralizing the folloving dental ; -e.g. W* a-sto- ahvam (for a-sto-s-dlivam), 2. pl. aor. of stu, ' praise.' 67. Change of dental q s to cerebral as: Preceding van-els except T a or 5 (even though Anusvzra or Visarga intervene), as well as k and 3 r, change dental q s (follorred by a vowel, t , V,th, 9 u, q m, T y , q,v) to cerebral 8 , ~ ;-e. g. from ~ F f q sarpis : & sarpi3-5, ' with clarified butter '; &ft sarpirpsi, norn. pl.; Ff&3 sarpil~su, loc. pl. (cp. 43, 3); from v5ic : ~Hk-sn, loc. pl., ' in speeches '; from gir : ei gir-eu (82), loc. pl., 'in speeches'; ti?that,i, ' stands,' from sth8, ' stand '; 3Tm bhavi-syati, 'will be,' froni )Lf, bhti, 'be '; qmrl sul;v%pa, ' tie slept,' from svap, ' sleep ' ; from caksus : 7- cakeus-mat, 'possessing eyes '; but #d: sarpib (final) ; 9WTT inanas-H, ' by mint1 ' (a precedes) ; tamis-ram, ' dark- ness ' (r follo\vs). I1 69 INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 31 Note.-The rules about the changes of the clental q n and q s to the corresponding cerebrals, should be thoroughly acquired, since these changes must constantly be made in declension and Table sho\ving \\-hen q s changes t o B.s. conjugation. Vo~r-els except V a, aj fi (in spite of intervening AnusrBra or Visarga), also k, 3 r, 68. The labial q m ieinains u n c h a n g e d befme V,y, 3 r, q.1 (cp. 60 and 42 B I) ; but before suffixes beginning with ?,v it becomes T n ;-e.g. k%m-ya)?, 'desirable,' tiim-ra, ' copper-colouied,' am-la, ' sour '; hut T i l m ja-gan-viin, ' having gone ' (from T q gam, ' go '). 69. a. The (soft) b r e a t h i n g a h befoie q B and, in roots beginning nith 3 (1, before q t , y t h , V.dh also, is treated like V_gh;-e. g. @lV+fft lehf si=@m lek-ai, 'thou lickest' (67); a + ciah + syati =WKf?j dlsak-syati, ' he will burh ' ( 5 5 ) ~ + ~ d a l ~ - t t a = ~ c l a g - d h ~ , ' b i n n t ' ( 6 ~ 1 ~ ) ; %+q dih + d h v e = f m dhig-dh~e, ' !e anoint ' (62 a). sinkarry treated are the perf. pass. participles of the roots snih and, in one sense, muh : fftM snig-dha, 'smooth,' and gN mug-dha, ' foolish.' b. 4 11, in all other roots, is treated like an aspirate cerebral, nhich, after changing a folloaing q t , q,tb, a d h to ah, and lengthening a preceding short vo~rel, is dropped ;-en g. f@ + 8 lih f ta=+z lidha, ' licked ' ; g. + 7 mull + t a = p change q s to a.~: if followed by ro~rels, ij t, q.th, q n , T ~ , Y Y , B . ~ . 32 INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 111 7 0 rncdha, ' infatuated.' Similarly treated are the roots vah and m. sah, but with an apparent irregularity in the voxel : XZ iidha ', ' carried ' (for 9 + ?f vah + ta) ; q?m rodhum ', ' to carry ' (for + aq vah + turn) ; sodhum 2, ' to bear ' (for +99 ' sah +turn). An exception to h is the root nah, in which g h ib heated as V,dh : W nad-dha, ' bound.' An exception to both a and b is the root m. d!;h : d ~ d h a , 'firm ' (begins with 3 (1 and has a short vowel). CHAPTER I11 DECLENSION 70. Declension, or the inflexion of nominal stems by 111eans of endings, is most conveniently treated under the three heads of I . nouns (including adjectives) ; 2. numerals; 3. pronouns. I n Sanskrit there are- a. three genderc: masculine, rernini~le, and neuter ; b. three numbers : singular. dual, and plural ; c. eight cases : nominative, vocative, accusative, instru- mental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative 3. ' The syllable va, which is liable to SamprasHraga (p. XI, note I), becomes 3 u and is then lengthened. Here 3 o represents the Indo-Iranian a~h, \vhich after cere- bralizing and aspirating the following dental becomes o, just as original 25 (through az) becomes o ;--e. g. in iff^: mano-bhil? : cp. 45 b. "his is the order of the Hindu grammarians, excepting the vocative, \\ hich is not regarded by them as a case. I t is convenient as the only arrangement by which such cases as are identical in form, either in the bingular, the dual, or the plural, may be grouped together. DECLENSION 71. The normal case-endings added to the stem are the following :- N. q s - b V. - a - m a s T i C A. V q a m - I. wa \ . bhis a. The vocative is the same (apart from the accent) as the ' - nominative in all numbers except the masc. and fern. sing. of v o ~ ~ e l r atems generally and the masc. sing. of consonant stems in -at, -an, -in, -as (cp. 76a), -yas, -vas. b. The nom. acc. sing. neut. has the bare stem excepting the words in -a, which add q m . c. The nom.voc. acc.plur. neut. before the ;C: i insert T n after a vo\rel stem and before a single final mute or sibilant of a consonant stem (mpdifying the T n according to the class of the consonant). 72. An important distinction in cleclension (in stems ending in y c , q t , i j n , q s , and :) is that between the strong and the weak stem. If the stem has two forms, the strong a11d the weak stem are distinguished ; if it has three forms, strong, middle, and weakest are distinguished. a. Shifting of accent was the cause of the distinction. Tlre stem, having been accented in the strong cases, here naturallj- ' preserved its full form; but it was shortened in the weak cases i hy the accent falling o c t h e endings. For a similar reason the f + I last vowel of the strong stem, if long, is regularly shortened in I D I 34 DECLENSION TT1 73 the vocative, because the accent alwaya shifted to the first syllable i n that case. 73. The strong stem appears in the following cases :- Nom. voc. acc. sing. \ Nom. voc. ace. dual of masculine nouns '. Nom. voc. (not acc.) plur. Norn. voc. acc. plural only of neuteis. a. When the stem has three forms, the middle stem appears before terminations beginning with a consonant (0- -bhyiim, - - O ~ - b h i s , ~ ~ - b h y a s , O F J - s u ) ; the weakest,before terminations -- - beginningaith a vowel in the remaining weak cases ;--e.g pratyCiic-an, nom. dual ; ' ~ l m f j H : pratyilg-bhib, inst. plm.; fi*: ~ratic-6h, gen. dual (93). b. In neuters with three stems, the nom. voc. acc. sing. are middle, the nom. voc. acc. dual, weakest ;-e. g. pratyftk, sing., mcfFit patic-:, dual, mfa pratgsiic-i, plur. (93). The other cases are as in the masculine. NOUNS. 74. This declension may conveniently be divided into two classes :- I I. Stems ending in consonants 3:- A, unchangeable ; B. changeable. Excepting the stems in : (101 j nearly all nouns with changeable sterns form their feminine with the suffix f i (roo). I t is practically most convenient to name changeable stems in the middle form, since t l~ i s i s also the form in which they appear as prior members in compounds. 3 Sonlc grammars begin with the vowel declension in '3q a (11. A) since this contains the ~najority of all the declined stems in the language. 111 76 DECLENSION 35 11. Stems ending in vowels :-.I. in a and 8; B, in i aud 3 n ; C. in Qi and 3 5 ; D. i n T Z r ; E. i n ? ai, .iiif o, a au. I. A. Unchangeable Stems. 75. The nurnber of these fitems is con:pa~ati\elx small, there being none ending in guttnral or cereLial mutes, and uone 111 nasals or semivowels (excel~t 3 r). They are liable to such changes only as are reqnired by the ~n le . of S a n d h ~ before thn consonant terniinations (cp. 16 tr). J las~ul inec and feminines ending in the sanie consonant are inflected exactly alike ; and the neuters d~ffer only in the nom. voc. acc. dual and plulal. 76. The final consonants of the stem retain their original sound before vo\+el terminations (71) ; hut when there i s no ending (nom. sing., the q s of the m. t being dropped), and before the loe. 111. FJ sil, they must be reduced to one of the letters q k, $ t, q t , Yr) or Visarga ( z ? ) , which respectively become q g , Fa, 5 d, y b , or 3 r, before the terminations beginning with Y bh. a. Tho voc. eing. m. f. is the same as the nom. except i n stems in (derivative) w a s (83). 6. Forms of the nom. voc. acc, plur. neut. are extremely rare in thirs declension ;-e.g. from om?-bhHj, 'sharing,' OW^ -bhEfiji; nom. rsing. OVq -bh%k. But for practical reason8 it rtppears preferable to begin with the con- souant declension, which adds the normal endings ( 7 1 ) without modifi- cation ; while the wide deviation of the a-declension from these endings is apt to confuse the beginner. 36 cOKSORAKT DECLENSION 111 77 Stems in Dentals. 77. Paradigm sn-hrd, m. ' fl.iend' (lit. ' good-hearted '). SING. DUAL. PLUR. N.V. wq su-hrt (27 ) 1 -hid-rnl A. ~ ~ s u - h r d - s n ~ , I. 3-62;1 s ~ ~ - h ~ d - i j D. g e SU-hrd-e m - h r d - b h y 8 m 1 g w : -llr,i-brya1~ Ab' 1 rn: su-hrd-ab G. g-rq -hrd-~im 1. gm so-hrd.i -hrd-oh 3- -h$-h~ (32 ) a. In the paradigms of regular nouns with unchangeable stems it will be sufficient t o remember the nom. sing. and the nom. inst. loc. plur. ;-e. g. from 0 % ~ -jit, 'conquering ' : O ~ W -jit, OM: -jit-ah, o m : -jid-bhih. O ~ V -jit-su ; frolrl O W . -math, 'destroying': -mat, O q q : -math-ah, e m : -mad- bhih, 0- -mat-sn ; from O m - v r d h , ' increasing ' : 0- -r!t, O w : -vrdh-ah, o*: -vrd-bhih, O n - y t - s u . Stems in Labids. ' 78. 0111s a few ending in y p and y bh occur. They a1.o declined exactly like sa-hrd. STEM. NOM. SO. NOM PL. INST. PL. I O C . PI,. ~ 4 g y dhal .~na-~up, egy OJj9: " 3 f ~ : 111. ' guardian of Ian ' -gnp -gup-ab -gub-bhib - p p - s u kakubh, 3 : *: T$y f. ' region ' kakup 1iaku)~h-ah kakub-bhil~ kakr~p-su 111 79 UNCHANGEABLE STEMS 37 Stems in Palatals. 79. The palatals i y c , sl-j, Ts') nnderqo a change of organ \\hen filial and before cousonant termination^ (cp. 63). c alnays becomes guttural (q k or qg)-; 3.j and T,; nearly alnays become guttural, but sometimes cerebral (? t or ? (1). STEM. N O I . SO. NOH. PL. INST. PL. LOC. PL. qly \Fit l , wq : m: f. ' speech ' \$k vkc-ah rhg-bhib v~k-SG (67) -.a~rj, w q a@? m: 11. ' blood ' Qsrk Qyiij-i Bsyg-bhib 6s~k-su W,rllj , Tq T=f: Fm: W f. ' disease' ruk a ,I%-bhih ruk-su ~ ~ . a m r i i j , 'FmTal: mf$: -3 m. ' sovereign ' samr i t samrij-ah samrid-bhib sam-ritsu clik, f- @: Q~TH: fa f. ' cardinal point ' d i k c1i;-al! dlg-1,hib dik-sli viA, f8.q f fW$: m?J m. 'settler' v i t ~ik-al) via-bhfh r i t - s8 a. Like v;ic are declined tvac, f. 'skin,' ruc, f. ' light,' sruc, f. ' ladle ' ; jala-muc, m. ' cloud ' (lit. ' water-shedding '). b. Like ;9U1.ruj are declined %m.r tv - i j , rn. 'priest ' (lit. ' sacrificing in seabon '), Mw, ba12ij, m. ' merchant,' m. bhisaj, rn. ' physician ' ; W s r a j , f. ' galland ' ; also d - i i r j , f. ' strength' (nom. Wi+ Elk, 28). C. Like m=f. samlBj is declined parivriij, m. 'mendicant.' Stems in cleri\ative V a c are changeable (93). - 38 CONSONANT DECLENSIOX 111 80 d. Like m d i s ' are declined O';;q-dyd, ' seeing,' O w - sp~Q, ' touching ' (at the end of compounds). Stems in C e r e b r a l s . 80. The only cerebral stems are those in the sibilant B,s, which is naturally changed to cerebral t or ? a. STEM. NOP. SO. HOP. P L IWST. PL. LOC. PL. f m d v i s , @? St: fsg: n ~ . "enemy ' fm dl it dvis-ah dvid-bhib illlit-sti 3fqlpB PI'%-1 p, f . ' rniuyseaso~~' plavft prZvfs-ah priivfcj-bhih p~dvft-sn Stems in % h. 81. Most of the few stems in 3 h change that letter when final or before consonant endings to a guttural, but (cp. 69 b) in OW -lih, 'licking,' it becomes cerebral, and in JrlTT ups-nah, f. ' ahoe ' (that which is ' tied on '), dental :- STEP. NOM. SO. NOH. PL. INST. PL. LOC. PL. 0% -dull, "yq "%F: "yfr~: ' milking ' - d h u k -dub-al> -dhlig-bhib -dhuk-su (62 a) O p J -drub, V "qq O g : 0 : 'injuring ' -dhrnk -drnh-ah -ahrug-bhil? -dh~uk-?u a m usqih, a f q ~fw: vf%q f. ' a metre ' u ~ ~ i k usnih-ah usnig-bhil~ uynik-su madhu-lib, m. ~ f e ~ o ~ % Q ' bee' (' honey-licker ') -lit -1ih-ah -lid-bhih -lit-su ups-nah, JPW O 9 $ : 0T f. 'shoe' npL-nat -nah-ah -rind-bhil~ -nat-511 111 8.3 UNCHANGEABLE STEMS 39 Stems in 3 r'. 82. The 3 r becomes Visarga only when final, that is, in the nom. sing. only, remaining before the FJ sn of the loc. plur. (50). A preceding 7 i or J u is lengthened when the 3 r is final or followerl by a consonant. STEX. NOH. SO. N O I . PL. INST. PL. LOO PL. dviir, m: m: d: a f. ' door ' dvBl> d\Lr-ah dv8r-bhib dvar-qu (67) f i gir, 3 : fiTC: M: f. ' voice ' g i b gir-alj r - h i gir-qu y-$ p., s: YFG: w 2.4 f. ' t o s n ' t pur-ah giir-bhih piir-su Stems in q s. 83. These stems consist almost entirely of words formed with the derivative sl~ffixes as, is, Jq us, chiefly neuters. They lengthen their final \ omel (before tbe inserted nasal) in the nom. ror. ace. plur. uent. The masculines and feminines are nearly all adjective compounds a i t h these etems as their final member; those in w a s lengthen the a in the nom. sing. Paladigms : ya4-as, n. 'fame ' ; T;fm hav-is, n. 'obla- tion '; W q i i y - u s , n. 'life.' F I Y G ~ L A R . X.V. -1. m: F$q: =my: ya4ah hay il! Z Y U ~ I. m T 3.a!az-ii m havis-Z (67) v Eyua-2 (67) 'l'hcre are no s t e w in other semivowel-s. CONSONANT DECLENSION 111 83 D. w@ &as-e m havis-e * Lyus-e Ab.G. ?qq: m: ya:as-* havis-a$ m: 5yus-ah L. yas'as-i havis-i wn Zyus-i - ) DUAL. N.V. A. yas'as-i m havis-i + Byus-i I. D. Ab. 'Q- w* * yah-bhyiim (45, 2) havir-bhysm (44) Lyur-bhyLm G.L. -3: Tm!k 1 yakas-op havis-o$ m: Zy~yus-oh PLURAL. - N.V. A. Wifif ?, 5 - G f m yas'tims-i (66, z ) h a w s - i -& I. *: mi: yajo-bhib havir-bhi$ D.Ab. *: gfd: ydo-bhy& havir-bhyah G W mw yaias-iim . havis-am L. q : g m:!j 3 &ah-an havih-so (67) a. su-manas, ar an adjective, 'cheerful,' has in the noni. sing. masc. TJFfl: sumin'&? (voc. 991: slimanah), but neuter gfl1: suminal> (but it$T%: dirghiiyuh nom. sing. in all genders). Similarly Y@T~ aiigiras, m., uinnaq, m., names of seers, and BBq 11s-as, f. 'dawn,' form the nominatives Y m : kfigirZb, m: u6Bn~h (sometimes WJT uSBnii), R U ~ I BBT: u l l ) . I11 8 5 CHANGEABLE STEMS 4 I g. .aTf@(8-iis1, f. blessing,' lengthens its i (like the stems in ir) in the nom. sing. and before consonants : nom. sing. d: ~&ih ; pl. nom. Mm: ?is!i?-ah, inst. wed: ?is%-bhib, lot. M : q &ih-su. c. dos, n. 'arm,' is quite regular : nom. sing. @: doh, nom. dual (10s-i; pl. inst. @f$: dor-bhih, loc. @:y d01)-su. % I. B. Changeable Stems. 84. Regular changeable stems end in the dentals q t , T n , 'Ffs, or the palatal c ; those i n q t end in v at (also -mat, -vat); those i n y n end iri v a n (also -man, q v a n ) or in (also f % ~ min, m v i n ) ; .those in q s end in Vq yas (comparatives) or W v a s (perf. participles active); those in y c end in W a c , mhich is properly a root meaning ' to bend.' The stems in m a t (85-6), m i n (ST), m y a s (88) have two forms, strong and weak; those in v a u (go-g2), W v a s (89), W a c (93) have three, strong, middle, and weakest (73). Nouns with Two Stems. 85. I. Stems in mat comprise Present and Fnkure Prtrticiples (156) active (mssc. and neut.)'. The strong stem is in -: dhiy-6b bhuv-6b nady-6b vadhv-6P N.V.A. m: : N.V. 3-Q: dhiy-ah bhdv-al) nady-8b A. *: ' nadfb I. Cu: e m : dhi-bhfl) bhk-bhib nadf-bhih a. @ st,:, f. ' noman,' though n~onos~llnb~c, has most of the characteristics of polysyllabic stems in f i (100, 2-5): it mast take the special fern. tepinations, it shortens its f i in the voc., it has no q s in the nom., and has an optional acc. sing. in f q i m and acc. plur. in &is. This is doubtless due to its originally having been a dissyllable. 62 VOWEL DECLENSION 111 I O I N. & str'z S.V. m: striy-ah A. (m: striy-ah A. '(-7: st,:-h I. ~ t r i ~ - 8 I. m: stri-bhib D. f%& stliy-5i D.Ab. w: stri-bhyA3 Ab.G. m: striy-ah G. stri-+-fm L. mmq stliy-&m L. stli-sh P. st1i Dual. N.V. A. f& stdy-au, 1.D.Ah. stri-bbyfim, G.L. m: striy-6h. 101. D. Stems in r (mast. and fem.), which in origin I are consonant stems in -ar, are closely analogous in their I declension to stems in m - a n (go). These nouns mostly end in the suffix 3 -tr (i. e. -tar, Gk. -rqp, -+op, Lat. -tor). They dis- tinguish a strong stem -tar or -tar, a middle ?J tr, and a weakest ?,tr. The inflexion of masc. and fem. differs in tho acc. plur. only. I n the strong stem the namea of relations take the G q a form (ar), the names of agents take theV~ddhi form (Er). The sing. gen. is formed in Ji: nr, the loc. in ari, the voc. in a r ; the pl. acc. masc. in @I, fern. in W T s , the gen. in TqBrn. Stem dztf, m. ' giver ' fq m. ' father ' ZTQ m&tf, f. ' mother ' (Borip, dator) (n&$p, pgter) ( P ~ P , mgter) g\ -%TcC/. G.L. ~ 7 3 : diitr-6h fP*: pitr-6h ~ 7 3 : miitr-6h 64 VOWEL DECLENSION 111 102 a. n h p t ~ and 3 bhartf, though names of relations, fol- low dstf, taking the Vrddhi form in the strong stem : acc. sing. n8pt8r-am, ~ifTCq bhartkr-am ; also svgs~, f. 'sister' : acc. sing. mm sv8Sr-am, but acc. pl. mq: € srlsih. b. 3 n?, m. 'man' (Gk. 6-vrjp), takes the G u ~ a form in the strong stem; the gen. pl. is nrgim as well as 9TTq € n f ~ Z r n ; the 1.D.Ab.G. sing. are not founct in classical Sanskrit (],at the D. and O. in the Rig-veda are nhr-e, 9T: nhr-ap);- K. T n6, A. V q n S r - a m , I,. w~ n8r-i (Ep. Gk. 6-vip-c). K. pI. q: n8r-al; (Ep. Gk. 6-vdp-EE), A. r u i n , I. *: nf-bhib, L. nf-su. C, 3 krof-tf, m. 'jackal ' (lit. ' yeller '), substitntes @ lirogu in the middle cases : N. pl. q h ~ : krostir-ab, I. pl. m: krostn-bhib. d. Stems in t ~ , if declined in the neuter, mould be inflected like the nent. of buci : N.A. sing. Wi!J clh~tf , du. 'u- d h ~ t f - ~ - i , pl. miTfn dh~tf-?-i ; I. sing. V T d h ~ t f - ~ - ~ , pl. € I W7Jfii: dhztf-bhih. e. Feminine agent nouns are formed from masculines in t~ by the suffix ti : masc. dati, fern. &tr-i, ' giver ' (declined like nadi). E. Stems in 3 d, o, an. 102. The only stems in diphthongs are? rai, m. 'vealth,' go, 111. f. ' bull, cov,' @ dyo, f. 'sky,' and nau, f. 'ship.' rai changes the 7 i of the diphthong to y y before vo\rels, but drops it before consonants. 7ff go, in the strong cases, takes T ~ d d h i and becomes a gall, which is shortened to gii in the act. sing and pl. The ab.gen. has a contracted form (0s for av-as). 111 102 STEMS I N DIPHTHONGS 65 These stems form a transition between the consonant and vowel declension: they agree with the former i n taking the normal endings; with the latter i n adding q s i n the nom. sing. ancl in ~howing a vonel before endings with initial consonant :- N.V. TI: r&h (Lat. rE-s) A. fmq ray-am I. T m T rEy-5 D. TT3 rZy-6 (rs- i ) ~ b . G Tm: rZy-Ah L. 7f-f rZy-i N. A.V. 1 ray-a71 1.D.Ab. 3JW.q r&bhy&m G.L. rHy-6h =a: n6u-12 ( va i s ) rn n'av-am ( ~ i j F a ) srmr n ~ v - 6 w3 nZv-6 m: nZv-ah (vqFds) 'ilTft nZv-5 (vqFi) PLURAL. N.V. VP: W=f: 9 T T 1ky-ah &v-ab nkv-ah (+FCC) A. 7Jq: m: =mi: rZy-8b .gfi-9 nkv-ah (v iFas) F 66 VOWEL DECLENSION 111 103 I. TTfif: IS-bhib D. Ab. IJWt: rL-bhj-6h (r8-bus) G e m Eiy-Em L. 7Tg I 5-sd *: nau-bhih (voC-$1) *: nau-bhrBh arwq n~v-kin (vqF6v) * nau-$6 (vavvi) a. dyo, 'sky,' is declined like *go; the nom. sing. is the same as that of dyu (99, 4) ; in the dual and plur. the strong forms alone occur:-N. a: ayhah ( Z r h c ) , A. VTq dy&m (Lat. diem), D. ~3 dy6v-e, Ab.G. 3: dj6h, L. dytiv-i ; Dual N.A. ~3 d&v-au, N. pl. ZJm: d&v-ah. Degrees of Comparison. 103. r. The secondary suffix of the comparative -tara (Gk. -rrpo) and that of the superlative -tama (Lat. -timo) are added to the weak or middle stem of derivative adjectives (and even substantive^) ;--e. g. kuci : rgf8i7i h i - t a r a , kuci-tama ; prZc : priik-tara, Tlfm9 prEk- tama; m d h a n i n : dhani-tara, Vfm dhani-tama ; f m v i d v a s : f m v i d v a t - t a r a , f- vidvat-tama; pratyac: pratyak-tara, pratyak-tame. a. These suffixes form their feminine in TIT 8 ; but KCI tanla, when used as an ordinal suffix, forms its fem. iu f T (cp. 107). z. The p r i m a r y suffix of the comparative, iyas (Gk. -rev, Lat. -ior), and that of the superlative, istha (Gk. -ru.ro), are added to the root, which generally takes Guna (and is accented). Before them every wold must be reduced to one syllable by dropping suffixes ;-e. g. 9 I p n , ' minute ' : W@W3. fin-iyae, 111 104 DEGREES OF COMPARISON 67 dl?-istha ; gur-13 l , ' heavy ' : ~ 7 . q gir-ips, . g ~ ~ - i ~ t l ~ a ; lagh-d, ' l i ~ h t ' : F&m l&h-iy as, l6gh- ;$ha (Gli. i -XdX-wror) ; dii-rd, ' far ' : div-iyas ; q-q v&r-a, ' choiceJ : v6r-iyas, ' better' ; ksud-16, 'mean ' : ks6d-iyas ; yd-van, 'young ' : ydv-iyas ; hras-va, 'short ' : $- hds-iyas ; with irregular radical ~yllable : dirgh-6, ' long' : ~ ~ " t p q clrkgh-iYar ; bah-u-16, 'abundant ': *"f99 b6mh-iyas. a. ID some cases V q y a s is attached (instead of iyas);- e. g. jyk-yas, ' superior,' @'V jye'$ha (root jyZ) ; bh6-y-as, bhh-yigha (root % 11,hG) ; pr6-yas, ' dearer,' % pr6-$ha (root 3 pri) ; irk-yas, ' better' (Gk. ~ p c i o v ) , a &&stha; sthi-r8, 'firm ' : sth6-yas. b. Some comparatives and superlatives belong only in sense to their positives ;-e. g.%@W(,ne'd-iyas, ne'd-istha,'nesl;est,' to antikti, 'near ' ; kin-iyas, 'lesser,' .iiifiW kLn-istha, ' least,' to 6lpa, ' small ' ; *q virs-iyas, ' older,' af* vArpistha, ' oldest,' to vyddhd, ' old.' NUMERALS. 104. Cardinals. r 9 pzli 6-ka. 2 g TI: dvg2. 3 fB tri (Gk. rpc-, Lat. tri-). q 8 STm catlir (quatuor). 5 q Ilq piitca (x~~YTE). 6 6 (sex). 7 Q sapta ( i ~ r h ) . By assimilation for original gar-6, op. Gk. Bap-6-r, Lat. grzv-i-s. a A8 first member of a compound fq dvi. B a 68 NUMERALS 111 104 8 r; a$$ (;KT&), g Q ndva (novem). 10 90 d i i a ( 6 ; ~ a ) . 1 1 99 WTqq idkkdaga. I z qt wq dvk-da4a (66- ~ I K Q ) . 13 93 - 3 ~ tr&yo-da&i2. 14 98 wq ctit~~r-daia. 15 qq wq p8~ca-daia. 16 96 3- ?daaia 3. 17 qQ Byqq sapta'-c1:iia. 1 8 q t wqq aast6-da&. 19 qQ n8va-da'sa. -3 Ena-vim- s'ati. 20 90 f @ ~ ~ v i m ~ a t f ( v i g i n t i ) . 21: 9q ~ 6 . i ~ e'ka-vimiati, 22 99 ~ f i q f 3 dvi-vims'ati. 30 30 fim trimitit. 39 3Q -ilfl+qii(n&va-him- $at. m f m iina- catvsrimgat. 40 80 mm catla- r i q i d t 4. 49 8Q WFFlTf?q i jn l iva - catv8ri~i;at. B i T J ~ ~ i i n a - p a i i - &at. 50 qO paiir8-s'a't. 60 60 T@ ?as-$. '70 90 sapta-ti. 80 G O -3 aiitf. 82 rq s'fiffi dvy-agiti. go QO sfqf?f nava-ti. 96 Q.6 $F!Jflfl t in the gen., where it follows k&nta:-N.A. pdcca, I. q@T: paEc8-bhib, D. Ab. m: pafici-bhyah, G . paiick-n-km, L. paiick-su. The numerals for 7 to I 0 are declined in exactly the same way. as@, however, bas also the following alternative (older) forms :-N.A. &au!&u, I. m: a?!&-bhib, D.Ab. m: arit&-bby6b, L. v: a?!&-sd l. c. The cardinals 3 to 19 are used as plural adjectives, agreeiug with their substantives in number and case (3 and q in gender also). The cardinals from 20 to 99 (which are feminine), as well trs m d a t L m and m s a h i r r a m , are used as singular sub- stantives, the accompanying substantive being either in the same case or in the genitive;--e. g. X@l F: or . 70th m?19: saptati-ta- mab. I Q B ~ : ekasapta- 71st ti-tarnab. t ~ a f f i r : eka-saptatal?. 80th B-: akiti-tarnal). m: ek~ii t i - 90th ?3fm: navati-tarn;~l?. m?f?i?l~: eka-nava- ti-tarnab. m: eka-navatab. 100th m: iha-tamrib. 1x1 109 NUMERAL DERIVATIVES 73 Numeral Adverbs and other Derivatives. 108. a. Xultiplicative adverbs : -UBq sa-kft, ' once ' (]it. one making ') ; @: dvf-h, ' twice ' (Gk. 6i-s, Lat. bi-s) ; fq: tri-b, 'thrice ' (Gk. rpk , Lat. tri-s) ; q: catdb, 'four times ' (for catdr-s) ; q v F : paiica-k~tvah, 'five times ' (lit. 'five makings '); m: sat-kft~Ab, six times ' ; &c. b. Adverbs of manner :-rn eka-dh$, 'in one way ' ; fm dvi-clhb or 3~ dve-dhk, 'in two ways' ; tlf-dhs or -. tre-dhi, 'in three ways'; @T catur-dhi, 'in four ways'; paiica-dhk, 'in five ways' ; h F+c&, 'in six ways ' (cp. 104, foot-note 3) ; _'PJTtlT sap!a-dk, ' in seven ways ' ; a+-dhi, 'in eight ways '; &c. c. Didtributive adverbs :-m: eka-iab, ' singly ' ; fm: dvi-Lab, ' in pairs ' ; f?q: tri-iab, in threes ' ; m: pafica-idh, ' by fives ' ; kc. d. Aggregative nouns :-rn dvay-6, adj. 'twofold ' ; n. ' n pair';. Wl tray-&, adj., f. -$, 'threefold'; n., i, f., and - tri-taya, n. ' triad'; 7m c6tu+ya, adj. 'fourfold'; n. 'tetrad' ; pa8ca-taya, adj. 'fivefold' ; m'Q a?ta-taja; adj. 'eightfold ' ; n. ' ogdoad ' ; m?m aA&-tasa, adj. 'tenfold' ; n. ' decade ' ; &c. log. A. Personal Pronouns. Stem (in composition) stem (in composition) mad (sing.) and tvad (sing.) and vs asmad (plur.) gu?mad (plur.) SINGULAR. N. m a h a m , 'I' tv-Am, 'thou' A. ~ q r n i r n , 'me' tvbm, 'thee ' 74 PERSONAL PRONOUNS 111 109 I. Wil mii-y-%, ' by me ' tvii-y-8, ' by thee ' 1). Bmmi i -hyam(mih i ) , ' t o me' t+bhyam (tibi),' to thee ' Ab. T15 m&d, ' from me' qq t x Ad, ' from thee ' , , G. U6I mi-ma, ' of me ' 7'6 t iva, ' of thee ' L. ilfP mi-y-i, 'in me ' @V tvir-y-i, ' in thee ' PLURAL. N. ray-&m, ' we ' m ) f i - y - ; i m l, 'ye ' L O A . m a s m n n , 113 g n ~ n ~ y u s m ~ n , ' you 'I. qprrfir: rrsm&bhil;, ' 11y ns ' m: juum&-bhih, ' by you ' D. ~ ~ a s r n f i - b l i y a m , ' t o us' ~ y n s m k b h y a m , ' to yo11 ' Ab. nsrnkd, ifrc1u-1 us ' 1 usmBd, ' from you ' G . ailm&ka-m ', ' of 11s ' y ~ ~ ~ r n k k a - m ', ' of yo11 ' 1 1 L. wrg asma-sn, i n u,' ZJW?J ynsmQ-sn, ' i n you' Changed from originaI yfi5-5m by the influence of qflq vay-Am. 1 These are properly not genitives a t all, but neuter singulars of possessive adjectives, meaning ' belonging to us, our,' 'belonging to you, your,' which have cane to be used as genitives. Similarly in German, a case of possessive pronouns, mein, dein, seiic, came to he employed aa the gen. of personal pronouns. DUAL. L c N. A. w ~ a ~ t m , ' we or us two' y v a m , ye or you two ' I.D.Ab. W-Tq 5v8-hhy&m, ' by, yuvk-bhytim, ' by, to, to, or from us t v o ' or from you two' G.L. m: 8vQ-g-ol), ' of or i n g d : yur.6-y-o1$, 'of or in yon 11s two ' t a o ' I I 111 110 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 75 a, The following unaccented forms, which are not allowed at the beginning of a sentence, are also used : Sing. A. mB, ;.Z; Q.G. ft me (poi), 3 te (mi). Dual. A.D.G. nau (Gk. viir), m v E m . Plur. A. D.Q. q: nal) (Lat. ncs), T: vab (Lat. vos). B. D e m o n s t r a t i v e P r o n o u n s , 110. The stem ?I ta (in composition ta-d), that ' (also =' he, she, it '), may be taken as the type of the pronominal declension :- SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASC. NEWT. FEX. MA%. XEUT. FEX, N. 8: s@' t i -d Kf SL b t6 (TO;) ttfini m: tkl) A. t im t i -d m q t k m &n mF( tf ni fl: ttfilj -+ -r a I. te'na ?7W ts-yZ - 3: t8i3 (TOTS) TTf%: ti-bhih D. t k s m a i & t8-syai %: t6bhyab m: tk-bhyab Ah. t 6-smEt 1 m: ta-sy* t&.~m m m ti-s5m4 G . tCsya2 N . A . m . e t & u , f . a t e ' , n . W t 6 . \ 1. D.Ab. rn. f. n. ti-bhysm; G.L. d: ti-y-oh. 3. ' \, a. A compound of ?I ta, ' that,' is m e-th, ' this.' I t is declined exactly like the former : Sing.N. w: e:i-b (48,67), e$, m$ et6-d ; A . W et&-m, m e t i - m , 0th-dl &c. Cp. 4 8 ; sB, si, ta-d=Gk. 6, rj,r6, Gothic sa, a5, that-a (Engl. that, Lat. is-tud). Horn. G k . roio (for ~ 6 ~ 0 ) . Lat. is-tarurn. ' b t . is-tlrum, Gk. rkwv (for r8awv). 76 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 111 I I I 111. Both the pronominal roots q a and i (which here in some cases show a double inflexion) are employed in the declen- sion of a-y-&m, 'this' (indefinitely) :- SINGULAR. PASC. NEWT. FEI . N. a-y-Bm i-d-t(m pl.qqi-y-Bm A. W i - m - f i m i-d-Qm m q i - m - & m -I. %%I an-e'na wimr an-t(y5 D. V& a-smii a-sy5i Ab. a-smkt G. a-sy& PLURAL. PAW. NEUT. PEX. 1,. TJ e-sic mfj ~ - 6 f i DUAL. N.A. m. # i-m-bu, f. @ i-m-6, n. i-m-6. I.D.Ab.m.f.n.3ql7~~qi%-bh~&m; G . L . 6 an-@oh. -.- TI1 112 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 77 112. The demonstrative pronoun, which in the nom. sing. has the curious form m. f. ~a a-s-hu, n. a-d-8s, meaning 'that,' 'yon,' employs i11 the rest of its declension the htem 7ag - - -- *m-ujfor vhich q a - m - i i is substituted in the fern. plur. (also acc. sing. and paltly in dual) and -3 a-m-i in the masc. plur. (except the acc.). SINGULAR. MASC. NEUT. FIW. N. & a-s-bu 1 T: a-d-Ah A. -a-in-6-m Ab. amB-smZt m: amb-syZl? G. amd-sya PLURAL. BIASC. KEUT. FEM. G . 8 9 7 ~ ~ am:-s m am:- s ~ m L. ~.2 i tg am:-?" TTY arnt-@n DUAL. N. A. m. f . n. ~%ami! i ; I.D. Ab. ~ q a m 6 - b h y 8 m ; G.L. m: amd-y-oh. a. The unaccented defective pronoun of the third person, ena ('he, she, it'), is declined in the A. of all numbers, I. sg., and G. L. dual : A. -.---. m e n a - m , QTTT ens-m, ena-d ; enau, @ ene, @ ene; en%+ m: en%-b, mm eugni ; T. sg. l@7 enena, f. ena-y-ri ; G.L. du. m: ena-y-oh. C. Interrogative Pronoun. 113. The stem of the interrogative pronoun % k&, 'who, which, what?' is inflected exactly like ta, excepting that the N. A. neuter is f@R, ki-m ;-e. g. N. %ii: kBh, W kfi, faiq kim; plur. 3 kk, m: khh, ?iirfs kkni. L. sg. kk-smin, f. kA-syiim ; pl. k6-su, f. &-EX. a. In derivation the stems ki and ku, as well as a ka, are used;-e. g. fm ki-y-at, 'how great? ' ku-tra, ' where?' ka-dZ, ' when? ' As the first member of a compound kim is generally employed, sometimes 9 ku : f* kiv-riipa, adj. ' of what form ? ' w% ku-karman, n. ('what kind of '=) 'wicked deed.' I/ D. Relative Pronoun. , U4. The stem of the relative pronoun V ya, 'who,' ' which,' is declined exactly like 71 ta:- SIHG. PLUR. x. q: m - 8 m: m ya-h yk Y B - ~ YC ~ g h &ni A. Vq PTiC q3 VTq w: m y6-m yh-rn y ~ - a ykn y 4 ykni 111 I 17 REFLEXIVE AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 79 E. Reflexive Pronouns. 115. a. sva-y-Am, ' self,' is indeclinable (originally a nom. sing. like a-y-8m). I t may express any person or num- ber (e. g. ' myself,' 'himself,' ' yourselves '). It usually has the of a nominative, but often of an instrumental, aud some- times of a genitive. I t frequently also means 'spontaneously.' b. OtmCn, 'self,' is a masc. substantive (declined like m b r a h m a n , go, 3). I t is used in the singular as a reflexive pronoun of all persons and genders. c. a: sv&, svi, q s v 8 m (Lat. NUUS), 'own,' is a reflexive adjective (declined like & sarva, rzo b) referring to all three persons and numbers ('my, thy, his, our, your, their own'). I t is alsoused (like WW(Btman) in the oblique casesas areff exive pro- n~un;-e.~. * - sva~nindanti, ' they blame themselves.' d. ni-ja, properly an adjective meaning 'inborn,' 'native,' is often used in the sense of a pronominal reflexive adjective (like sva). F. Possessive Pronouns. 116. Possessives are formed with the suffix iya, from the ~ t e m s of the personal pronouns mad, tvad, &c.: ~b mad-iya, ' my,' @p tvagya , 'thy '; asmad-iga, ' our,' mq yusmad-iya, ' your ' ; tad-iya, his, her, its, their.' a. With the s u f i E6 ka are formed from the genitives 99 mama and im tava, mIma-kri, 'my,' and mSi tZva-ka, 'thy' (cp. 109, foot-note 2) ; from 3Ff7f. bhavat, ' your Honour,' bbvat-ka, 'your.' G. Compound Pronouns. 117. By adding dF$, dria, or d~ksa , to certain pronominal stems, the following compound pronouns have been formed :-rn t8-dfi, m m tfcdfka, t Z - d f k ~ , 'such ' 80 COI~XPOUND PRONOUNS 111 118 (lit. 'of that look') ; W y i i - d E s ' , j5-djia, 'what like,' ' of what kind'; i-dfi, i-@;a, QB I-dfksa, 'such' ; q- ki-dfi,q?q'JJ ki-d$a,'what like? '; m8-dyia, 'like me,' tv8-aria, 'like thee.' a. The feminine stem of the compounds in d ~ 6 is tbe same as the masc. and nent.;-e. g. nom. sing. m. f. n. tzdik; that of the componnds in ZJq *$a is formed ~ i t h ti;- e.g. waft t ~ d ~ i i ; of those in drk:a nith W 8;-e.g. W T iBd~k%B. 118. By adding vat and yat to certain pronominal stems, the following compouods, implying quantity, have been formed :-rn &-sat and etk-vat, ' eo much ' ; &vat, 'as mnch ' ; i-yat, 'so much,' ki-yat, 'how mnch ? ' These are all declined like nouns in vat (86), and form their feminines in the same way ( ~ 9 tHvat-7, m?Ft iyat-7, &c.). a. fi k6-ti, 'how many ?' (Lat. qnot), t8-ti, ' so many' (Lat. toti-dem), )&-ti, ' as many,' are uninflected in the N.A., but in the other cases are declined like sgfB iuci (98) in the plural. 119. The interrogative 8 ka, by the addition of m c i t , cana, or api, is changed to an indefinite pronoun, 'some,' 'some one' : ;?if?J?( kai cit, ~ @ q k% cit, fwq k i y cit ; kai cana, WTT k5 cana, f* kim cana; *SW lro 'pi, kiipi, @5m kim api. a. In the same manner indefinite ad le~bs are formed: qqT ka-d8, 'when?' ~ v f ~ q kadB cit, qm kadH cana, 'some time or other,' 'once '; kva, ' n here?' 'iT na kvgpi, 'not anyuhe~e, ' nowhere.' b. The relative precedingtheinterrogative renders it indefinite : ?I: qii yab kab, ' n hosoever ' ; yasya kasj a, ' of whom- soever.' Sinlilarly V: m y a b kaicit, V: yab kdca, or q: yab kakcana, 'whosoever.' c. The relative pronoun, if doubled, assumes a distributive ineaning: V: yo yab, 'whoever, whatever in each case' (fol- lowed by a double correlative). H. Pronomiria.1 Adjectives. 120. Several adjectives derived from, or allied in meaning to, pronouns, follow the pronominal declension (like 3 ta) either altogether or in part. a. n any&, ' other,' anya-tar&, ' either,' f-tara, ' other,' ke-tar&, ' which of t ~ o ? ' ka-tam& ' which of inany ? ' qmq eka-tam&, 'one (of many),' follow the pronominal declension throughout, taking 3 d in the N.V.A. sing. neut.; a;s: any&-Q, an&, qT anyd-d (cp. Lat. alin-d); ,D. -3 an)&-snlai, f . m a n y 8 - s y a i , ~ . a s q f ~ q a n ~ A - s m i n ; &c.b. sf sArva, ' every,' ' a:),' JKQ ubhd-ya, ' both ' (sg. and pl.)', 6ka, 'one' (105),PWTeka-tara, 'either,' differ only in taking q m instead of d in the N. A. sing. neut.:-e. g. d: sArva-h, a$r servi, 8 6 i j r e r v a - m ; D. a sbria-nmai, Ab. s6rsa-snlZt, Ci. sdrva-sya, L. ~ $ f q ~ s6rva-smin; pl. N. a sA~ve, dl: s&rvZh, dT@$ sArvPgi. C. @ p6rv~ , 'prior,' 'east,' 6vs-ra, 'posterior,' 'west,' Adha-ra, ' inferior,' ' west,' JTfT, 6t-tara, ' subsequent,' ' north,' vm dkksiga, ' south,' 'Pi pAra, ' subseqnent,' 'other,' kpbra, ' other,' ' inferior,' 6nta-ra, 'outer,' a sv6, 'own,' besides necessalily taking q m in the N.A. hing. neut., may follow the nominal declension in the Ab. 1,. sing. m. n. and ' But 'JW ubhi, ''Loth,' i s declined in the dual cnly (like kknta). . 1 82 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES IV 121 in the N. plur. mast.;-e. g. N. A . n. ptrva-m ; Ab. m. n. p6rva-sm~t or a* p6rvgt ; I,. $f&i. ptrva-an~in or @ p6rve; N. pl. m. @ pirve or *: ptrv5b. d. ardh6, 'half,' Slpa, ' little,' qf?lVi kati-pay$, ' sorne,' p i - thama, ' first,' cara-mi, ' last,' BQ dva->i and drf-taya, 'tw-ofold' (and similar words in 'Q ya and t:iya). are inflected like ordinary acljectives, except that they WZRY follow the pronoininal declension in the N. pl. maw.;-e.g. m: caramih or ~ 7 $ ca,ame'. e. dvit;!a,' second,'and tFtf!a, ' third,' may follow the pronominal declension throughout the oblique cases of the singular;-e. g. D. m.n. tTtti iya orq?fh& trtfya-smai : L. f. tr tfy%-y~m or t&a-syZrn; but S. PI. m. only ~?.m: tFtt i ib. f. Any of these pronominal words occurring at the end of pos- sebsive compounds (189) are declined like ordinary adjectives. i I CHAPTER IV CONJUGATION 121. Sanskrit verbs are inflected with either active or middle iyqs< ( terminations. The active roice is called Parasmai-pads, &ura % i. e. tralsitive (lit. ' vord for another '1. The middle voice is ~ ' ~ ~ f i + t-- called &mane-pada, i. e. reflexive (lit. ' r o r d for oneself '1. ,eq \ z b e passive takes the telminations of the Atmanepada ; ~ $ t h ' 7 which i t coincider except i n the present and imperfect ( Ibqre / i t forms its stern with the suffix ya), and in the third sing. - w aorist. C a. The Sanskrit verb has in each tense and mood three numbers, Singular, Dual, and Plural, with three persons in each. 1f 124 CON JUGATION ,.i r- 83 122. There are in Sanskrit five tenses conjugated in the indicative : I. Present (nith imperative and optative moods) ; 2. Imperfect ; 3. Perfect; 4. Aorikt (nith n kind of optative called Benedictive or Precative) ; 5. Future (nith the Conditional, a kind of past future). ; > 6 ,,,: L, , i herea are also participle^ connectedaith three of these tense^, present, perfect, and future ; and one infinitive (167), a verbal noun unconnected with sny tense. 8. Classical Sansk~it has neither a pluperfect tense nor a snb- junctive mood (excepting the surrirals of it in tbe first persons imperative) ; nor has it an imperative or a proper optative of any tense except the pleeent. There a-re, therefore, far fe'iver verbal forms in non-Vedic Sanskrit than in Greek. I The Present System. 123. ZhIle the perfect, ao~ist, and future tenses add the terminations directly (or after inserting a gibilant). to the root, 'the present gronp (the present vith its moods and the imperfect) formu a special stem, nllich is made in ten different way*. Henre - s -- the native Sanskrit grammarians have divided all verbs into ten - classes. The tenth class, which is really a secondary formation, retains its present stem in nearly all the other verbal forms also, z o % e secondary verbs generally (causatives, desideratires, intensives, deno~ninatives). The Ten Classes. 124. The ten classes are divided iuto two conjagstians. In the first, comprising the first, fourth, sixth, and tenth classes, the present stem ends in P a , and remains unchanged throughout. T i e second conjagation, which comprises all the re- maining classes, the terminations are added directly to the final 0 a 84 FIRST CONJUGATION IV 125 of the root or to the suffixes 3 u, 3 n u , T n5, (?I? ni, 7 n),and the present stem is changeable, being either strong or weak. I A. ~ i r s t Conjugation. 225, I. The Grst or Bhii clabs adds T a to the last letter of t he root, which, being accented, takes Guna of a final vowel ( s G t or l ong) and of a short medial vowel followed by one consonant ; -- e. g. 3$, bhC, 'be,' forms the present stem 3Vf hhRv-a; Fudh, ' know' : *q b6dh-a. 2. The sixth or Tnd class adds an accented V 6 to the root,_ which (being unaccented) has no Guqa. Before this 3 R final F changes to ir. Thus 35 tud, 'strike ' : gq tud- i : 7 ki, 'scatter' : f f ~ kir-6. 3. The fourth or Div class adds q ya to the last le t te~ of the root, nhich is accented (but the weak form in some cases assumed by the root points to the B ya having originally heen accented) ; - e.g. q% nah, 'bind ' : nrlh-ja ; f $ , div, ' play ' : d f ~ - ~ a (I33 B). 4. The tenth or Cur class adds the suffix Pq Rya, before _- -- ahich a final vowel takes Vyddhi, but a short nledial voure! -- -- followed by one consonant takes Guna ;-e.g. cur, 'steal' : cor-@a. &hort medial 7 a follo~veil by one EonsonaIlt isin . most cases lengthened ;- e.g. Ziiqkam : Bimq k8m-Liya, ' deqire.' B. Second conjugation. 126. The strong forms are- con the si~ignlar present and imperfect active ; 2. all first persons imperative active and middle ; 3. the third person singular inlperative active. In-Ghkse forms the vowel of the root br the affix, being accented, is strengthened ; while in the weak forms it becomes short because tbe terminations are accented. Iv 127 SECOND CONJUGATION 8~ a. In the ninth class the accented form of the affix is nk, the unaccented ni or q n ; ia the s e ~ e n t h they are respec- tively sl n& and =l. 11. 127. I. The second or Ad class adds the termination6 directly -. - to the root, which in the strong forms takes Guqa if possible - - -I- - (125, I);-. g. ad, 'eat ' : sing. ~ . ~ f q Bd-mi, 2.- At-si, 3. At-ti ; i, ' go ' : h i , i-si, 6-ti ; m~ lih, 'lick ' : l&-n>i, @f@ I&-si (69 a), %f% 16-wi (69 b) . - a. This and the beventh are the most difficult classes to con- jugate, because terrni~~ations beginning with various consonants come into contact with the final consonants of roots, and conse- quently many rules of internal Sandhi have to be applied. 2. The third or Xu class adds the terminations directly t o - the reduplicated I*, which in the strong forms takes G u p if -- I,ossible;--e. g. $: hu, 'sacrifice' : jn-h6-mi, ' I sacrifice '; v: ju-hu-mCb, ' we sacrifice.' a. Theintensives conjugated in theactive (172) follow this class. 3. The seventh or Rudh class adds the terminations directly to the final consonant, before which sl nB is inserted in the strong, and q n in the weak forms;-4.g. gjt yuj, 'join ': ?J7- yu-n6-j-mi; T s W : yniij-m8b. 4. The Wth or la claw adds 3 nu, which takes Gu~?a i n the strong forms, to the root ;-e. g. g SII, ' preys out ' : F@@l st,- u6-mi ; m: su-nu-m&h. 5. The eighth or Tan class adds J u, ~shich takes Guna in -. the strong forms, to the root;-e. g. VT tan, 'stretch' : 7&f%l ..- tan-6-mi ; m: tan-u-m&$. a. All the (seven) verbs of this class end in q n , except ,t k?, ' - ----- do,'x,hichhas anirregular presentstei~~ : k e r - b - r n i ( ~ ~ ~ ~ ) . 6. The ninth or Kri class adds to the root slT d, jn the strong forms, but in the weak qf ni before consonants a i d T n - 86 CONJUGATION IV 128 llofore vowels ;-e. g. S? kd, ' buy' : mrf~ liri-&-~~li ; p1. I. ~kk: kri-~i-miib, 3. T&@fi kri-?-&ti. The Augment. 128. The imperfect, the aorist, and the conditional plefix to the root accented '3Jl A a3 their augmeut, which forms Vrddhi with an initial vowel (23) ; -e. g. budh, ' know ' : 3. sing. iinperf. *if &-bodha-t ; 9% und, 'wet' : J* u-xi&-t-ti, ' he wets,' &a-na-t, ' he vetted' ; y, ' go ' : q-7 ft:chilti, ' he goes,' w+if i rcchat , 'he went.' a. The augnlent is dropped in the imperf. and aorist (nhich ale then used imperatively) after the prohibiti, e patticle i l T m i : Z f i~q or Z f i * ~ mZ kZr$t or lrarot, ' ma1 he not do it.' Reduplication. 129. Five verbal fornlations take reduplication in Sanskrit : the present stem of the third conjugational class, the perfect, one kind of aolist, the desiderative, and the intensive. Each of these five has certain peculiarities, which must be treated separately under the special rules of reduplication (130, 135, 149, 170, 173). Common to all are the following. General Rules of Redaplication. I. The first byllable of a root (i.e. that portion of it ~ l i i c h enda with a vowel) is reduplicated;--e.g. m l ~ u d h : m b u - b u d h . 2. Aspirated letters are represented by the corresponding unas- pirated;-e.g. fq bhid, ' cut' : fm bi-bhid; Ydhii, 'shake ': 5% du-dhii. 3. Guttulals are represented by the corresponding palatals, $11 . by 3.j;-e. g. lam, 'love' : Bziiqca-kam; -khan, ' dig' : v q ca-khan ; ' i lqgam, ' go': 5TW, ja-gam ; has, laugh ' : ja-has. IV 131 REDUPLICATION 87 ,+. 1f the root begins with more than one consonant, the first is reduplicated;-e. g. 57 krui, ' shout' : m c u - k r u s ' ; mksip, ' tbro\\ ' : m c i - k i p . 5. fa root begins with a sibilant followed by a hard consonant, latter is reduplicated;--e. g. g stu, ' p ~ a i s e ' : 83: tu-@u (6:) ; m s t h g , 'stand ' : ta-sthii; m i c u t , 'drip': %Jyqcn-:cut; sknnd,'leap': bT< ra-sknnd. But smr,'remelnber': / sa-smy (m is soft). 6. If the radical vonel, nhether final or medial, is long, i t is , sllo~tened in the reduplicatike syllable ; - e. g. mp g5h,'enter ': 3- ja-giih; 'gi7 kri, 'buy ': fB* c i -k l i ; F - k i i j , 'hum ': m u - k C i j . 7. If the radical (not final) vonel is p e, i t is leplesented by i ; if o or au, by J u;-e.g. W q e v , worship': fir"Bq, si-eev (67) ; dhauk, ' approach ' : 5@& c!u?hauk. 8, Roots \\hi&, according to the native Sanskrit glaniil~ar ian-, end i n Q e , B ai,* o are morecon\enientlystatect to end i n w z , a and are so treated i n reduplication;-e, g. 9 gai, 'sinF,' 3. ~ i n g . perfect d ja-gau (136,4). Special Rule of Rednplicatioa for the Third Class. 130. and f are represented in reduplication by i ;- 3J bhr,' beary: ftHf?T bi-bhar-ti ; 2 pf. 'fill': pi-pr-ti. Terminations. 131. The folloaing tahle give.; the termination$, which ale on the whole the same for all verbs, of the present system. The chief clifference is in the optative, which is characterized by e in the first, a n d q l y i andf i in the second conjugation. I t nil1 plevent confusion to ~ e m e ~ n b e r that the present indicative has the primary (-mi, -si, -ti, kc.), while the imperative (with some variations) 88 CONJUGATION IV r3[ and the optati\-e, as well as the imperfect, have the secondary terminations (-m, -s, -t, kc.). Of the other tenses,the future takes the primary, and the aorist, with the benedictive and the con- ilitional, takes the secondary terminations ; while the perfect takes in the active (with many variations) the secondary, and in the middle, the primary endings. I n order to understand clearly the difference between the t\r.o conjugutions, the following points should be noted.1n the Grst or a-conjagatiotr (as in! the a-declension), the acoent is neve~; 'on the terminations, but always on the bame syllable of the $tern (the rdot i n the first and fourth, the affix in the sixth and tenth classes), which therefore remains unchanged. theother hand, i n the second conjugation (as in the declenfiion of change- able stems) tbe accent falls on the strong stem, which is shortened in the weak forms by the shifting of the accent to the termina- tions. In the second conjugation, therefore, the ter- minations are accented except in the strong forms (126) of m - the present. The same would apply to the imperfect, were i t without an augment (128). PARASBIAIPADA. Plesent. Imperfect. Optative. / \ 1st conj. 2nd conj. 1. fs mi1 8 9 a t n 2 m e y a m 3 mq ykm 2. fQ si q s mi 0s ' Q T ~ yis 3. f?l ti ? t W et y i t I. W v a s 1 a eva W?r y'ava 2. '$fF. thas q t a m W T j e t a m m 7 1 q y i t a m 3. 3Tqtas mqtgrn m e t h m ~ ~ i ~ ~ y ~ ' a t i i m x. T l n a ~ q ma1 ema Pm ykma 2. V tha 3 ta eta m?r 3. T@FI anti5 m a n 6 eyur y6r Imperative. a Bni -(I) @hi4 (2) 3 tl' , 5va 3q tam tS a n a 3 ta alitu5 TERMINATIONS IV 131 89 1. T e 2 . 8 \ se 3.3 te 1. iia vahe l ATMANEPADA. Imperfect. Optative. 7 ta rn vahi ' w eja3 m ethas m eta m evahi Imperatire. sva - am tHm 4 Zvahai * mm7 warn Late(2) &tBm(2) itzm (2) 1. * we mahe mahi1 rn W? * emahi imBhi Bmahni 2.e . w y dhve dhvam m e m m edhvam idhvilm dhram 3. * wa w - . w ante(1) anta(1) eran irhn allt81n ( I ) rn m Ate (2) eta (2) 1. The final V a of the first conjugation is lengthened before Trn or q , ~ ; - e . ~ . HQfFl bhAvi-mi, m: bhavii-vab. 9" CONJUGATION I V 131 2. Terminations beginning with vowels should be added in the first conjugation after dropping the final a;--e.g. 8-bhav-am, H ~ F ( bhiv-et. 3. The terminations of the first conjugation, given in the above table as beginning with Qe, really collsist of the final q a of the hme + f I ; but on practical grounds it is preferable to assume that they begin with Q e. 4. Verbs of the first conjugation take no termination in the 2. sing. imperat. Par, (being exactly parallel ~ ~ i t h the vocati\e singular of the a-declension). Those of the second take dlli (Gk. O r ) after consonants, @ hi after vowels. But- a.-in the ninth class - Lna takes the place of f~ dhi;- e.g. math-an&' (but m q kri-?:-hi). $6 e' b. hi is dropped in the fifth and eighth classes, if the 3 a is .keA. preceded by a single consonant ; - e. g. 93 su-nd (but Lp-nu-hi). G. in the third class 5: hu adds fv dlli (instead off$ hi) after a vowel : p f v ju-hu-dhi. 5 . Verbs of the third class and some other reduplicated ljresent stems (cp. 134 A 4, B; 172) drop the q n of the 3. plur. pres. indic. and imperat. Par. In the Atm. the whole second con- jugation rejects the T n of the 3. plur. pres. impf. impv. 6. Verbs ofthe third class and some other reduplicated stems (cp. 134 A 4, B ; 172) take ur instead of v a n in the 3. plur. ilupf. Par. Those of the second class which end in P, as well as f85 vid, 'know,' and f@Z,dvig, 'hate,' mag do so. Befote this suffix a final 5 is dropped, while f I, 3 u, T are The origin of this peculiar imperative ending is uncertain. It perhaps stands for -n;-n& : B being the reduced form ( =long nasal sotiant) of the class ~uffix -n&, and na the ending which is found i n the Vedic 2. pl. impv. ;-e. g. i-ta-na. I V 132 TERJIINATIONS 9* gunated;-+, g. ).it bhi, 'fear ' : m: ;I-bi-bhaY-ub ; m: &-ju-hav-up; a - ~ % - n or '3Jrg: 8-y-up. That .the final of this ending(which also appears in the 3.plur. optative and the 3. plur. p r f . active) is ety~nologically r, and not q s , is provecl by the corresponding forms in the ilvesta. Paradigms. 132. As the four classes of the first conjugation are inflected exactly alike, one paladig111 will suffice for them. The sanle applies to the fifth and eighth classes. I n the second class mavis has been used for the paradigm, becallbe it illustrates better than acl both the rules of internal Sandhi a d the difference between s t ] ong and n eak forms. SINGULAR. I. mfa bhavii-mi 2. mi t)l~ziva-si 3. u r n bhilra-ti FIRST CONJUGATION. First Class : bhu, ' be ': Present stem rn bh5v-a. PARASNAIPADA. DUAL. rnn: bhavii-val) U V I : bhCra-thab u w : 1)118va-tab Present. PLURAL. SINGULAR. urn: Ha hh8vii-mab bhiv-e' H W -3 bli 8va-thii bh8va-se uafq u=m bh8v-ant i 1)hdva-te Imperfect. wT=fra BHma BTMANEPADA. DUAL. PLURAL. umu% hhilvi-vahe bhivii-mahe 2 -3 wa Y l,h6v-ethc bh6va-dhve 0 0 u"a uaB ti: bh8v-ete bhLv-ante 3 * 8 aaa* wmf$h z S E C O N D C O N J U G A T I O N . Second Class : f ~ < l v i ~ , ' hate ' : Present stern-~~dve'?, f@'( dvis. PARASMAIPADA. Present. ATMANEPADA. SINGULAR DUAL. PLURAL. SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL. Third Class : 3: hu, ' sacrifice ' : Preseut sten* TJ@ ju-116, qg j11-hu. PARASMAIPADA. Present. BTMANEPADA. SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL. SINGULAR. 'DUAL. PLURAL. p-l: jnhu-mBh 3% jlihv-e ?Fq juhn-th8 -3 juhu-sk w@ j"y;@i 95:W jnhu-tk Imperfect. w 8-jnhu-ma yfs A-juhv-i v S-juhu-ta v: S-juhu-thE1) m: -Fq 8-juhav-ah 8-juhu-ta d-juhu-vahi A-juhv-Gthiim =qzTmT 8-juhv-iitiim juhu-dl~ve' z b * C, jdhv-ate 0 2Fifth Class : 3 su, ' prehs out.': Present stem 3 3 sn-n6, 39 sn-nn. PARASMA JPADA. Present. ATMANEPADA. DUAL. PLUXAL. SINQULAR. DUAL. PLURAL. wq rn q* m 0 d911116-ti ~ ~ l u v - d n ' i SIIIIII-16 snnr-Cte suuv-ate 2 2 Imperfect. WF - ~ W T wm'@ 8 '-4 A-sunu-ma 8-sunv-i 8-sunn-vahi A-sunu-mahi Seventh Class : rudh, 'obstruct' : Prosent storn qqy ru-I!&-dli, ?W. l.u-11-dh. PARASMAIPADA. Present. ATMANEPADA. SIAGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL. SINGULAR. -- m w w: * rnndh-m8h rundh-e' T%: v-35 w mud-dhtlh (62 b) rund-dhtl runt-sC Tn?;: WTm T=% rund-dhlib rondh-Anti rund-dhe' Imperfect. DUAL. PLURAL, Ninth Class : liri. ' Lu! ': Preseut ~ t e n l k~i-n' l , ~"trn? kri-~)i, *q k l i -Q u 8 PARASMAIPADA. SINGULAR. DUAL. 3;tnFr m: k r ~ - ~ ' a - m i kri-qi-vA1~ a m rn kri-&-si kri-~$-thA$ kri-ni-tAb Present. I'LURAL. YIROULAR. *e: kri-vi-m Ah m kri-n-6 dxf'lv *@% kr i -~i - th5 kri-ni-t6 3 ih f%7 m kri-n-Ant i kli-ni-t6 Imperfect. .srti;.faifir 8-kri-~i-ma 8-kri-Q-i *aft3 *'@rr: 8-kri-~i-ta 6-kri-ni-thC11 *Y m 3 5-kri-n-au :i-kri-ni-ta DUAL. PLURAL. -.prrs - S-kri-n-Sth;tm A-kri-ni-dhvan~ * 3 c" - i - n - t i 5 - k ~ i-n-ata N l"4 CONJUGATION 'Iv 133 Irregularities of the Present Stem. First Conjugation. 133. A. First or Bhii Class. I. 5iiq kram, ' step,' W-Vilq &cam, 'sip,' guh, 'conceal,' m'stliiv, 'spit,' lengthen their rowel :-SiirCI krim-a, m m 5-ctm-a, 9 &h-a, 3 q ?th:v-a.-- -w.mrj, 'cleance,' takesTrddhi : STST mtrj-a.-85 ?ad, 'sink.. substitnteq f i for a a : sf&-a (for si-s[a]da: Lat. sido). --_ --_ 2. gam, 'go,' and Vq yam, 'restrain,' form the present - stein with cha (Gk. UK) : gci-cchn, y8-ccha (see ---- -- -- below, C 2). 3. XI ghr8, ' amell,' qf pi, ' dliuk,' -1 sth8, 'stand,' redupll- cate with if i : ji-ghra, fi$ pi-ba (Lat. bi-bo), t i-5th (Gk. Z - o ~ q - ~ l , Lat. sisto). These verbs oiiginally belonged the third (reduplicating) class (rp. UT sad above, A I). 4. dam;, 'bite,' m - m a n t h , 'churn,' T(qeafi j , 'adhere,' d ~ o p tbe naCal:--F'Jr d&:-a, UVf 1~18th-a, U3 scij-a. 5. m d r : , ' s e e , ' WT dhm~,'bloa, ' Wmn8,'study,' subrtitnte p6i-ya, WT dh8m-a, W m6n-a. I 8. Fourth or Div Class. I. W? tam, 'languish,' *Tq bhraln, ' I O ~ U I , ' m $ a ~ n , 'ceaie,' SFqd~am, 'Be weary,' -mat[, 1 ' ( rejoice,' m d ~ v . 'play,' lengthen their voa\el :-rn t$rn->a, Z T ~ n i h - ~ a , divya, kc. 2. Gy bhrami, 'fbll,' dropa its naial : bhr6i- ; ra . -T vyadh, ' pierce,' takes Samprasiira~a : fiq vidh-ya.-jn jan 'he born,' substitutes XT j%: JrrV ji-ya (cp. 154 a, I). / C. S k t h or Tud Class. I. k ~ t , ' r u t . ' ~ m o e , ' l o o s e n , ' ; l ~ ~ p , ' break,' f~lp lip, ' paint,' vid, ' find,' fiiFC sic, ' spinkle,' insert a naqal :-rn kpt-8, gciamufic-Q,V lump-P. @fW ~ I I I I P - ~ , @T vind-A, sific-A. I f 134IRREGULARITIES OF THE PRESENT STEM 105 2. w.i?, ' wish,' substitutes ch for a?, and y, 'go,' adds ch :-%* i-cchA, r-cchA (cp. A 2) . 3. prach, ' ask,' U q b h r a j j , fry,' m v r a i c , 'cut,' take EamprasElana :-$3j prcch-&, 255i bhyjj-8, vybc-8. Second Conjugat ion. 134. A. Second o r A d Class. I. The root is irregularly strengthened in the following verbs :- a. yu, ' join.' and all other roots ending in J u, take V~ddhi instead of Guna in the strong forms before terminations beginning -with consonarlts :-% ya6-mi, hut A-yav-am. b. myj, ' cleanse,' takes Vyddhi instead of Guna : 3. sing. rngrs-ti (cp. 63), 3. pi. 9- mrj-&,ti. c. ~3 ii, 'lie down,' Atm., takes Gnna throughout its weak forms, besides inseitingT r before theterminations in the 3. plur. pres., impv., impf.: -3. sg. id-te (Gk. KC;-rat), 3. pl. 66-pate, -mi&-r-at~rn, 6-$e-r-ata. 2. The root is irregularly w e a k e n e d in the following veibs :- a. vai, 'desire,' takes Famprasiiraqa in the weak forms: 3, sg. a \A~- t i (63 b), 3. pl. 114-Anti. b. w a s , 'be,' drops its initial B a in the optative and all the weak forms of the pres. and imperative;-e.g. 3. sg. opt. aq s-ykt; 3. pl. preP, 6% s-Anti (sunt). The 2. sing. impv. is e-dhf (for az-dhi, Aveatic zdi). In the imperfect it inserts f:i before the endings of the 2. 3. sing. : Es-ih, *%-I-t. C. m h a n , 'kill,' Par., drop8 its y n before qt and Y t h in the weak foims: 3. sg. qf3 hAn-ti, but z . 111. ha-thA. In the 3. pl. pres., imp.: impf. the radical a is dropped and the h become8 g11 : ?T@ii ghn-dnti, ghn-rintu, -6-ghn-an. The 2. sg. impv. is Ms ja-hf (for g@$ jha-hi, with palatalized initial, instead of gha-hf). 106 CONJUGATION Ir 131 3. A vowel or semivoveI ih irregnfally inserted in the follow- ing verbs :- a. v a n , ' breathe,' -,jako, ' eat,' q3 rud, 'weep,' m s ' v a s , ' bl eathe,' ~ ~ s v a p , ' sleep,' insertpji before terminations beginning with consonants except q y ; but f i or a before the q s and q t of the 2. 3. sg. impf. Par.;-e. g. r6d-i-mi, but- rud-Anti, - rud-y8m ; impf. 3. sg. * R-rod-F-t or a-10a-a-t. b. & id, ' praise,' and I*, ' rule,' both iitm , insert '4 i before terminations beginning with q s and y d h (i. e. 2. ag. pl. pres. and impv.) : -m $-i-?e, ff* f6-i-dbve; fd-i-?va, ;A-i-dhvam. c. %br~,'speak,' inserts f;i in the st~ongforms befo~e temina:- tious beginning nith consonants:-* brAv-i-mi (but 3q: brii-mdh), 6-brav-I-t. d. T. i prececled by wq adhi, 'read ' (iitrn. only), resolves f i in the pres. an3 3 ai (angm. a+i) in the impf. before vowels into .f;S.iy and-.aiy :-pres. sg. r . -7% adhi-y-6, 2. -73 adhi-se'; impf. sg. a . W ~ a d h y - R i - ~ - i , 2.*: adhy-8i-th8b. 4. The r e d u p l i c a t e d verbs YqTqca-k%s,'shine,' W,ja-ks (for ja-gh[a]s, from ghas), 'eat,' WPJ j5 -g~, 'wake' (intensire of 9 g ~ ) , -T da~i-drS (intenshe of FT drj, 'lun'), 'be poor,' though accounted verbs of the second class, follow those of the third in taking a &ti aud ata in the 3. p1. pres. and impv., and ur for v a n in the 3. pl. impf. :-3. sg.- dilri- drB-ti, 3. 111. q m d61idr-ati ; 3. yl.impf. m: 6-jaks-ah. a. Q23, ' lule,' folloas the sa~ne analogy ; it also takes as its \seak stem before consona~lts:-3. sg. mfft iis-tl, du. d ~ - t ~ b , pl. 46s-ati. I V I 34. IRREGIULARITIES O F THE PRESENT STEM 107 B. Third or Ha Class. 1. d5, 'give,' and dt18, ' place,' use 'l;? dad and v , d a d h as their stems in the weak forms. -,dad11 (against 62 b) becomes V?( dhat before q t and w-tll : v ~ m d a - d h 5 - m i , but du. I .-: dadh-vLb, 2.W: dhat-th&. 'The 2. sg. impv. Par. is de-hi (for da-s-dhf) aud w$ dhe-hi (for dha-z-dhf). 2. 91 mit, 'measure,' and $r hZ, 'depart,' both Atm., have ffliit mi-mi and fe ji-hi as their present stems, dropping the f i before vom els :-pres. sg. I. fe jf h-e, 2. fm jfhi-se, pl. 3. jfh-ate ; impf. sg. I . 6-jih-i, 2. w*: 8-jihi-thitl;, pl. 3. 6-jih-aka. a. 3 hit, 'abandon,' Par., has 5@ jahi iin the weak forms, dropp~nq f, i before vowels and y y .-3. sg. mfl j6hP-ti, but clu. a: jahi-tah, pl. jlm jah-&ti ; inlpv. z . sg. am jahi-hi ; opt. I. sg. jah-y8m. C. Fifth or Sa Class. I. Boots ending in vonels ma) dl op t h e 3 u before q v or q ~ n :-giiiffirso-n6-m1, but-: sun-v6h or 93383 su-nu-vdb. z. Roots ending in consonants change 'J 11 to m . u v before towels :-w s'alr-nnv-finti. 3. 7 iru, 'hear,' and 9 dhii, ' shake,' form the present stems m's'r-nu and dhn-nn. - D. Seventh or Endh Class. m - a f i j , ' anoint,' w,bhaf i j , 'break,' feq hilns, 'injure,' drop their nasal before inserting sl na :-M% a-n6-j-mi, bhn-n8-j-mi, fm hi-na-5-n~i. E. Eighth or Tan Class. W k F , ' do,' takes k a r - 6 a.r its strong stem,and as its \ \ e a k m kur-u, t h e 3 n of allich must 1,e dropped before q lo, y y , q, v : -q- ka16-1r~i, 3-z kuru-thrih; hut *: Itar-vdb, *: knr-nxih; $-$rs kttr-y61n. Other verbs of this class may drop the J n before ?.v and q nl 108 CON JUGATION I V 135 as in the fifth. When componndedu\.ith the prepositions 67 pari and W s a r n , theverb 8 ky has an initial q s : -71 p6ri- - - skyta, ' adorned,' &?I-skrta, ' pot together.' This q s i~ not original. --*- -- - F. Ninth or Kd Class. 1. 3 dhii, ' shake,' xpfi , ' purify,' 18, ' cut,' shorten their vowel : 1- dhu-&-mi, 7- pu-nLa-mi, lu-nk-mi. 2. jfiB, ' know,' and grah, 'seize,' are shortened to JTr jii and gyh :-w- jli-&-mi ; - gyh-9k-mi (65). 3. w b a n d h , ' bind,' and T m a n t h , ' churn,' drop the nasal :- badh-&-mi, ~ T f 3 1 math-& -mi. The Perfect Tense. u5 . This tense is formed either by reduplication or peri- phrastically. Roots folloTG the former method, derivative verbs (chiefly causaxves) the latter. There are also four roots with a prosodically long initial vowel (140 a, I ) which take the peri- phraastic perfect. .Special Bales of Reduplication. I. r, f , t?Z 1 are represented by V a in the reduplicative syllable ;--e. g. ky, ' do ' : ca-ktr-a; 9 tf, ' cross ' : ta-&-a; kip, 'be able ' : -3 ca-kip-&. m 2. Initial- a or Wii becomesmZ;-e.g.T ad, ' eat' : &%-a; W B p , ' obtain' : Wfl kp-a (cp. Iqoa, I ) . 3. Roots beginning r i th 'C: i contract 7 i f 'Q i to ti; but if the radical i takes G~iqa oryrddhi, q y is inserted between the red~i~licative syllable and the root ;-e. g. V-iq, ' desire,' 3. pl. h: is-dh (for i-is-uh), but r. sg. i-y-&a. 4. Roots beginning with or containing V ye or B va, and liable to SamprasSrana. (cp. 137, 2 c), reduplicate nith i and 3 n: - - &. I V 136 REDUPLICATED PERFECT 1 0 9 W-yaj , ' sacrifice' : YmJI i-$-a ; vac, ' peak' : mq n-vtc-a. 136. The singular perfect active is strong, like the singular active present and imperfect, the root being accented; -- -- " - - the remaining forms are weak, the terminations being accented. The endings are the following :- PARASMAIPADA. DUAL. PLUBAL. ATMANEPADA. I . Q 6 (T)* (i)-vLhe (q)e (i)-mihe 2. (?)3 (i)-98 ~3 i the (?)9 (i)-dhv6 3. Q 6 Bte ~7 i-re a. The termirlations with initial consonant are added with the connecting vowel T i%elcept in the eight verbs : dro, - Y 'run,' 7 iru, 'hear,' stu, 'praise,' sru, ' flow,' a k ~ , ' do,' bhr, 'bear,' 9 v ~ , 'choose,' T sr, 'go,' where it mast be omitted. The 3. pl. iitm. retains the q i even in these verbs. 7- - In 2. sg. Par. it is omitted by many other verbs also, and is 01:tional in verbs ending in 8, as well as in most of t h o ~ e ending in '4 i, ti, 9 u. In these two dual forms ur has been borrowed from the 3. pl., the two endings thur and ?& t,ur corresponding to the z. 3. du. prea. tha6 and tas. ' This T i was in origin probably the reduced form of t l ~e final t i of roots like da, 'give,' and became the starting-point of 7 i as a con- necting vowel in other verbs. I10 COSJUGATIOX Iv 137 The Strong Stem. I. Short vovels followed by a single consonant take Guna thronghont the singular ;-e. g. w, is, ' wish' : -8. i-y-6s ; /--- m b u d h , 'nake': m b n - b 6 d h ; but m j i v , 'live': my j i - j iv. 2. Final voaels take Vyddhi or G u y in the first personsing~~la~ , G uva in the second, Vrddhi only in .the third ;-e. g. T i, 'go' : I. wm i-j-iY-a or i-y-By-a; 2. @TT i-y-6-tha; 3. T'.sm i-9-ky-a ; T ky, ' do ' : I. ca-khr-a or BziiT, ca-k8r-a : 2. ca-lrdr-tha ; 3. ca-kir-a. 3. Medial a followed by a single consonant takes Vrddhi in sg. 3.andoptionally in I.;-e.g.mhan,' kill': I. 51W jaghin-a or -7 jagl16n-a, 3. jaghhn-a. 4. Hoots ending in B (or diphthongs : r zg , 8) take % in I. 3. sg.,and may retain m8 before Btha in 2.8:. (cp. 136 a);- e. g. = dhH, 'place': I . 3. * da-dhhu, 2. - dadhi-tha or dadh-i-thh. Bnt hv5or 2 hve, 'call,' is treated as hii :-3. sg. - jn-hiiv-n (cp. 154 a, 3). The Weak Stem. 137. I. In roots containing the vowels ;, i, y, the radio4 syllable remains unchanged, except by Sandhi ;-e. g. budh : WW bu-budh-i-ma ; Ei kr : 799 ca-k~-m& ; stn : tu-stn-mi. a. Before terminations beginning with vo\vels final Ti, ti,= F if preceded by one consonant become V_y, 5 r, if by mole than one, m i y , a r ; while J u, W ii, and rtlways become J$_ nv and ~ a r ;-e. g. q? ni, ' lead ' : %: ni-ng-fib ; fq 61 i, 'resort' : m: bi-iris-sh ; ?ii ky, ' do' : v: ca-kr-fib; EJstl, I V I 3 7 REDUPLICATED PERFECT I11 'strew': m: ta-star-dh; ?J yu, 'join ' : m: yu-yav-fib ; kf, ' scatter ' : w: ca-kar-db. 9 a. I n roots containing a medial a or a final 5, the radical syllable iq weakened. a. Roots in which 7 a is preceded and followed by a single collsonant (e. g. pat), aud which reduplicate the initial con- sonant unchanged (this excludes roots beginning with aspi~ates, gnttnrals, and for the most part q,v), contract the two syllable8 to one with the diphthongQ e (cp. Lat. fic-ib, f~c-I ) '. This contrac- tion takes place even in 2. sg. Par. when P tha is added with T i (the strong form being used when Ff tha is added without 'ji);- e. g. par, ' cook ' : 2. s g . - m pec-i-th8 (but papsk- the), 3. pl. CIq: pec-d\i ; 37 tan, 'stretch ' : ten-i-thi, 33: ten-sh . b. q j a n (139, 2 ) , ' be born,' and four roots with medial a $ beginnhg with gutturals, viz. khan, ' dig,' qT( gam, 'go,' Vq ghas, 'eat,' han, ' k~l l , ' weaken the root by dropping the radical vowel:--3. sg. iitm. ja-jii-6; 3. sg. Par. Zfm ja-&m-a, but 3. pl. 3fq: ja-gm-dh ; ml3 ja-ghks-a, but q: ja-kg-dh ; 3- ja-ghkn-a, but 3lEJ: ja-ghn-db (cp. 134, 2 c). c. Five roots beginning with q va, viz. ?l=( var, 'speak,! vad, 'speak,' Z q vap, 'strew,' B q v a s , ' dwell,' qF vah, 'carry '; also 8T J aj, ' sacrifice,' v j adb, ' pierce,' ay svap, ' sleep,' grah, 'seize,' take SarnprasLrana. In the first five J n + J u (cp. 135, q) contract to Ji ii, in the sixth t i + T i to f I:-~. sg. u-v'ac-a, but pl. SF$ Ec-dh (for u-uc-6h) ; wq i-&-a, but b: i j -dh (for i-ij-dh) ; V T P ~ u - ~ v k ~ - a (67), but m: sn-sup-61.1; JmV ja-grkh-a, bht v: ja-grh-lib. This vowel spread from contracted forms like sa-z-d (Avestic hazd), weak perfect atem of sad, 'sit ' (az becoming e ; cp. 134, 2 b and '33 A 1 ) . I12 CONJUGATION I V 138 d. Roots ending in W B drop it in all the weak forms, and optionally in 2. sg. Par. (see 136 a and 138,3). Paradigms of the Eednplicated Perfect. 138. r. tnd, 'strike ' : htrong stem @% to-t6d ; weak 7JiJT tu-tud. PARASMAIPADA. I . I tu-t6d-a im tu-tud-i-rl g@9 tu-tud-i-m6 2. I m t n - t 6 d - i - t h a ;. I tu-t6d-. z. S k ~ , 'do' : strong c a - k i r , ~ c a - k k r ; weak 7% c s k r , q S iicakr. I. 7% ca-kr-6 ~2 ca-ky-vlhe q-2 ca-kr-m8he 2. -9 ca-kr-sC ca-kr-,:the q& ca-kr-dhvi 3. ca-kr-e' ca-kr-kte ca-kr-ire' Lat. tu-tud-i-mus. ' Lat. tu-tud-i. Or qm ca-khr-a. IV 138 REDUPLICATED PERFECT 113 3. dh5, 'place ' : strong da-dhk; weuk q d a - d h . PARASN AIPADA. 5. stu, 'praise ': strong @? tu-;l;t6, @ tu-st6u ; ~t-eak tu-stu. PARASMAIPADA. tu-gu-\-& QV tn-stu-mil tu-qu-v-6tliul~ tn-stu-v-6 t11-stu-v-6tul> aij: tu-gu-r-tih ATNANEPADA. I. m2 tu-stu-r-e' ~3 tn-stn-vdl~e tu-;l;tu-l~~ahe 2. 7J@ tu-stu-s& ~ X B T % tll-.:tu-v-kthe 9x3 tn-gu-dhv6 u-stu-v-6 3. @% t .;. I - - - 3- tu-stu-v-irk Or qfY'$ tin-dl,-i-tili. 01. f ? ( ~ ni-ndy-a. 0 r fimq ni-~xij--i-tlia. * Or PTq tu-?tkr-~. I 1. I '@ da-dh&u ,. / da-dh'a-thal I . @ dn-dh-e' qf-3 da-dh-i-vshe ?@* da-dh-i-m8hu 2 . @~"a da-dh-i-s6 ~3 da-dh-ithe (la-dh-i-dhv6 B. i@ da-dh-6 @ da-dh-$te -3 da-dh-ir6 4, ni, ' lead ' : strong ni-ne', ui-n8i ; weak f* ni-ni. PARASNAIPADA. da-dh-i-\-Q e~q da-dh-i-m6 m: dr-clh-Athub qV as-ah-i f w ; ~ ~ ni-ny-i-vi ni-ny-i-mti m: ni-ny-ithub ni-ny-6 fv: ni-ny-dtub mw: ni-ny-db 1. 2. 3. ATNANEPADA. I . ftq ni-ny-8 @$- ni-uy-i-\ Qhe m e ni-ny-i-m8he 2. ni-ny-i-se' ~WT% ni-ny-ithe @if* ni-ny-i-dhre' 3. f* ni-ny-e' ni-ny-$te fqf%7? ni-ny-i16 fm ui-n6y-a2 fq%'$. ni-nk-tha3 ftm ni-1liy-a 114 CONJUGATION IV 138 6. tan, .'stretch ': strong ?IT7 ts-t in, mlT. ta-tin ; weak 37 ten. PARASMAIPADA. 8 m ten-i-vd ten-i-mi 8WJ: ten-6thub 89 tea-6 ten-8tuh ?Q: ten-lih ATMANEPADA. me ten-i-v8he 8 m ten-i-mahe 8- ten-&the W@@I ten-i-dhv6 %'la ten-fite ten-ire' I. 2. 3. WTFf ta-tin-a' qiWl ta-t6n-tha2 7f7flT ta-tin-a 8. vac, ' speak' : strong u-v8c, w=f u-v'lc ; weak fic. 7. W( garn, 'go ' : strong WF( ja-gfim, ; weak ja-gm. , PARASMAIPADA. PARASMAIPADA. iic-i-vci Bif9'4 tic-i-m6 m uc-Q fic-lib ATMANEPADA. I. a6$ iic-6 ,-? iic-i-v6be me iic-i-mihe 2. iic-i-$6 iic-ithe iic-i-dhv6 3. B!@ iic-6 aiqfil iic&te iic-ire' I . 2 . 3. ATMANEPADA. I . & ja-gm-e' 3- ja-gm-i-vBhe ja-gm-i-m6he 2. ;sf* ja-gm-ise' ja-gm-fithe em ja-grn-i-dhve' 3. 5$l ja-gm-e' fl ja-gn-ite ja-gm-ire' W R ja-g8n-tha 3- ja-$m-a ja-g8m-a"fw ja-gm-ivB ja-gm-imb WIWJ: ja-gm-dthuh W ja-gm-fi -3: ja-gm-Qtuh -5: ja-grn-6b 139. 1. Wjf-bhaj, ' share,' though beginning with an aspirate, follows the analogy of the contracting verbs with e (137, 2 a) : 3. s. qm ba-bhjj-a, but 3. pf Q: bhej-fib. Similarly IJT rsj, ' shine ' (medial ii), and optionally rTq tras, 'tremble' (tw,, initial consonants), and Wl, bhram, ' wander' (initial aspirate, two consonants) :-3. ~ g . A.-e lej- ; 3. pl. P. 873: ta-tras-uh or 33: tres-uh ; qw: ba-bhram-uh or w: bhrem-nh. 2. yam, 'reach,' and W( yam, 'vomit,' though beginning with q y a a n d q va,do not take SamprasBrana, but follow 137,2 a:- - ya-ykrna, but * yem-6 ; 11WW va-v8m-a, but 33: vem-up ; while q v a s , 'weir,' Btm., does not weaken the root at all :-m va-vas-e. 3. rq vid, 'know,' forms an unreduplicated perfect y i t h - present meaning: -v~d-a, 'I know' (~k . of&, Germ. weiss), _ _ _ - - -._ _v6t-tha (dv-Ba), a?j v d - a (ofsf) ; fai7 vid-m8 (r%-psv, wissen), fsl?j vid-8, m: vid-dh. 4. fq ci, 'gather,' ji, 'conquer,' f$ hi, 'impel,' fl han, 'kill,' revert to their original guttural in the radical syllable :- ci-&-a, RWB ji-giy-a, fim j i -gJS-a, qm ja-gh6n-a (cp. 137, 2 b ) . 5. ah, ' say,' is defective, forming only 2. sg. dual and 3. sg. dual pl. : -- kt-tha, mf $h-a ; w: a-Qthuh, ma: &h-Qtuh; w: Bh-6h. 6. m a m i , 'reach,' reduplicates with the syllable W L n , in which thb ~adical nasal is repeated with the initial vowel (cf. Gk. aor. inf. Cv-cy~-c;v) ; on the other hand, the radical nasal is dropped in the weak forms : 3. sg. P. &n-&mda, 3. p1.B. k-ah-ire. The analogy of this verb is followed by T$ arc, ' praise ' :-3. sg. T& Bn-Brc-a. I a I 16 PERIPHRASTIC PERFECT I V 140 7. W bhii, ' be,' has the d o ~ ~ b l e irregularity of reduplicating n ~ i t h q a nd retaining its Biii throughout (cp. Gk.r~-+6-riar) :- Periphrastic Perfect. qo. The verbs uhich cannot rednplicate, ft~rnx their perfect l>ym~xilq an abstract feminino noun in t!ic act-~isatile, a ~ q h n , I and adding to this the redoplicated pel fec~ rli 3 k ~ , ' do,' qq as, --- I I or 1 I e This formation sfnrtcd i it,: tile employ- -- - ment of the tran~itive verb Zi h ~ , e. ;. 9-i gaulaJ$m cskSra, ' he did going,' i. e. ' he d ~ d go ' : lwt in ~lassical Sanskrit the periphrastic perfect is u,nnll> ft !liic-,l \\it11 WJ,ac, the o t h e r - - - .. two auxiliaries occnrring onl: excel tionall!. Tile pel iphmstic: - - + l e ~ f e c t is ahnost enti~ely linlited to the ~leri\ati\c vgbs in w7 _ . _ _ - -___ . "_*_ ___-_.-- aya (tenth clays, causntives, and denorninativei) ;-e. g. q 3 ~ ~ - UTfl bodhajkm Zsa, 'Ilc :triakened.' IIardl!. any es,znil,lec.: ot desideratives or intensives :LI.C found ill this tenso. a. The followiug arc. the f e \ ~ pri~iial.!. \-cl.l>s taking the 1;eri- l'hrastic. l~erfect :- I. four roots begi~lniiq with a ~tr~,so(!ir,:i!Iy 1(11,g ~ o \ v c l : - ' as, sit,' f y i k ? , ' see,' m - u j j h , ' forsalir,' QY.cilli, ' thrive' ;- q . g. q* 3% Z S - ~ I ! ~ calcre, ' lie sat.' 2. the reilt~plicat~d ruots Wq ca-lt;l;, ' ;ilinc,' aucl 5fT'JJ jii-g~, In\<-ake' (l)ro~,el.ly an intensive, 134 41 :-q'iliTfTi m T T cakkas-SF cakZra, jlT9n9Tfl j5gar-itm ZS:L. 3. the roots % bhr,'bcar, ' and, in tho J - t - ~ ~ - L a. The second conjugation takes Wsl ZnB i n the pres. ~ t m . : -11 j-hhv-ina (but fut. hog&-mzna, Pass. pres. g q 9 T i T hiiy&-mzna). The root m B s , 'sit,' takes the ,. 2 anomalous suffix ina : Bs-ina, 'sitting: -&afp*: . 159. The Perfect ~ t m . aonld be formed with the suffix LnB, which is added after dropping the termination ire of the 3. pl. Xtm.;-e.g mT babhiiv-ire': WJ?lT babhiiv-&nil. It haq, however, become obsolete, only a few instances of it sur- \ iving in the sense of substantives or adjectives ;-e. g. wmq antGe-Znl (from ano-mr, ' having repeated ' z ) 'learned.' %.Je 160. The Perfect Passive Participle is formed with the suffixes 9 n& and the much commoner 3 th. I. 'il na, ~111ich is taken by plimary verbs only, and is attached imnrediate1~- to the root, is used by a good many roots ending in the long vox els W i, I, Ji ii, f (which becomes i r 01 iir) and especially in 5d;-e. g. W m15,'fade' : ~ i T m l L - n a ; li,'cling': a9 1i-na; FJ,la,'cnt': la-na; -st?, 'strew': € -.tir-98; pj, 'fill': @ par-98 (cp. '51, 4); bhid, E ' cleave ' : f- bhin-n8. IV 160 PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE '35 nnd, ' and vid, find,' optionally take ?l ta :- gn nun-na or nut-t8; ~ i n - n a or f6iT ~it- t6 . . b. The fiml of a few roots in 3.j that take ?I na reverts to the original ,guttural ;--e. g. WSl-bhaiij, ' break ' : bhag-na; v. bhuj, ' bend ' : bhug-na; m - m a j j , 'sink ' : 9FT mag-na ; m , v i j , 'tremble ' : fBFl vig-na. a. 3 $a is attached to the root with or without the connecting vowel i ;--e. g. ji-t6, ' conquered' ; ~f?Rf pat-i-ta, 'fallen.' Whell attaching the snffix immediately, the root has a tendency to be weakened in the usual way: verbs liable to Sampras8rana ( ~ 3 7 , 2 ~ ) take it, L is in some cases weakened to ti or even T i, a final nasalis in several cases lost';-e.g.W yaj, 'sacrifice': is-$& (63 a ; 64) ; vac, ' speak ' : 375 uk-t6 ; svap, .YQ" I ' bleep ' : sup-t6 ; VT pB, 'drink ' : h pFtA ; ~ t h 8 , ' ( ' ~ + ~ L . 'stand': -3 sthi-t6 (Gk. crm-rd-o, Lat. sta-tu-s); gam, V %%:go' : ga-t6; m h a n , 'kill' : $3 ha-t8. Z-L- a. QT dhZ, is doubly weakened: fw hi-td. (for dhi-t6). b. dL, 'give,' uses its weak present fitem dad : dat-tb. After certain verbal prepositions dattA is weakened to 7 t-ta ;-e. g. 8-tta (for 8-datta), 'taken.' C. Several roots in q q a r n , instead of dropping the na~al , retain it, and lengthen the preceding vowel ;-e. g. kam, ' love ' : WiTTl k8n-ta. d. dhvan, 'sound,' follows the analogy of 'Qiq kam, kc. : dhvEn-t6: while a few others in m a n use a collateral form of the root in 8;-e. g. khan, ' dig ' : W khB-t6 ; m j a n , 'he born' : Jm j8-t8. 3. i-ta is taken by a considerable number of primary vel bs which end either in double consonants or in single consonantfi ' On the peculiar Sandhi of mots ending in h, cp. 69. 1 3 ~ PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE IV 161 not easily combining with q t , and by all derivative verbs (which drop the final a a or T'Q aya before it) ;-e. g. ialbk, ' doubt ' : ma iithk-i-ta; f m - l i k h , 'scratch ' : fftf?&likh-i-td; t~g ip-sa, desiderative of T Z p , 'obtain' : ips-i-ti; m n k8r-aya, causative of Ei kr, 'do ' : H m kZr-i-ta. a. The full form of the root is usually retained before ita ; but vad, 'speak,' and q q v a s , 'dwell,' usually take Sampra- sBrapa :-m ud-i-tL, uy-i-ta ; while g ~ a h , ' seize,' always tskes SarnprasHra~a anci the connecting vowel f i instead of i : grh-i-td (cp. 151 b 4). 161. By adding the possessive suffix"$iT vat to the past pass. part., a new form of very common occurrel~ce is made, which has the value of a perfect active participle ;-e. g. M kptL,'done' : krta-vat, ' having done.' It is generally used as a finite &id - verb, the copula being omitted;-e.g. B 77 m- P krtaviin, ' he (has) done i t ' ; KT Tq sB tat kytavati, 'th*,$-L 'she (has) done i t ' (cp. 89, foot-note 3). & L L & A ~ J - 162. The Pntnre Passive Participle is formed with the a suffises ya, n;S tav-yl, an? an-&. They correspond in'sense to the Lat. gerundive in -ndus. b' I. Before the suffix 'Q ya- I a. final B becomes Q e ;-e. g. dZ : q'g d6-ya, 'to be 1' C 8 1 ' i V T , f given.' 1'" 2 : C * b. final ii i, f i trike Guna, V u, Ji ii G q a or V~ddhi , 5W r , e) V~ddhi ;-e. g. f3 ji : h je-ya, 'to be conquered ' ; ni : q'Q we .,-yay to be led' ; J h i : W hav-y6, ' to be otfereq ; bhe : mq bkv-ys, 'about to be ' ; 8 hy : d kLr-yA, 'to be done.' dJq= p,A . C. medial 5; i and 3 n followed by a single colisonant generally take G n ~ a , a a is sometimes lengthened, y remains un- changed;-e. g. fH5 bhid : qq bhed-ya, ' to be split ' ; W - y n j : IV 164 FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE I37 $ ~ q ~ o j - ~ a , ' to be joined ' ; s'ak : Qak-ya, ' possible ' ; btlt vac : W vkc-ga, 'to be said' ; : 3~ ' to be seen.' 2. Before the snffk 71 tavya, the root, if possible, takes G q a , being treated in the same way as before the t8 of the periphrastic fut. (152) ;-fi ji : %?1;9je-tavya, 'to be conquered '; L . e .nd x b h i i : bhav-i-tavyh, ' that must be '; p m : Jd, gan-tavy8: ' to be gone ' ; d8 : v1 d8-tavya, 'to be given' ; MY- bhid : bhet-tavya, 'to be split.' 3. Before the suffix W h an-iya, the root takes Guns;- e. g. fB ci : mb cay-aniya, 'to be gathered'; % bhii : 4~ bhav-aniga, ' that must be ' ; B ky : iaq kar-aFiJ a, 'to be done' ; lnbh : lobh-aniya, ' to be desired.' a. The 8;7 aya of the causative is rejected;-- bhzv-aya : WF6)Tkkv-aniya, ' to be supposed.' 111. Gerund or Indeclinable Participle. 163. The suffix used for forming this participle from the simple verb is FTT tv-it (an old instrumental singular of a stem A in tu). I t is most easily attached to the root by being sub- stituted for the 7 tB of the passive participle ;--e. g. Zi?f kpt8, 'done': kr-tvk,'having done' ; uk-tl, 'spoken9: uk-tv8,' havhg spoken ' ; ga-t6, ' gone ' : ga-tvi, 'having gone.' a. The suffix of the causative, W aya, is, however, retained: cor-i-ta, 'stolen,' but wp~n cor-ay-i-tvii, ' having stolen.' 164. If the verb is compounded xith a preposition it takes - P ya instead of tv8: from %bhfi, 'be,' bhii-tvk, but sam-bh:-ja; from q y v a c , 'speak,' ulr-tv8, but ~3 - 1 3 ~ INDECLINABLE PARTICIPLE IV I 65 pra_uc-ya; from 1 t j , 'cross,' ava-tir-ya, 'having de- ~cended'; from 2 pj, 'fill,' w sam-pGr-ys. a. The suffix of the causative, aya, is retained (excepting the final T a) before ya d the radical vowel is short ;-e. g. k q sam-gam-ay-ya from sam-gam-aya, ' cause to assemble'; but vi-Gr-ya from f- vi-car-aya, 'consider.' 165. 3 tya is added, instead of B ya, to compdiind verbs ending in a short vovel ;-e. g . m j i - t v $ , b u t w ~ v i - j f - t y a . a. The analogy of these verbs is optionally followed by roots ending in T n or q m, preceded by a, which may drop the nasal if i t is dropped in the perfect participle passive (160, 2) ;- e. g. gam, ' go ' : Z-gam-ya or 2-ga-tya (part. ga-ti) ; nam, ' bend ' : pra-nam-ya (65) or pra-na-tya (part. na-tij ; q m a n , 'think ' : O W -man-ya or 0- -ma-tya (part. W?( ma-ti) ; m h a n , 'kill ': O m -han-ya or 0- -ha-tya (part. ha-ti) ; tan, ' stretch ' : O m -tZ-ya (cp. 154 a I) or -ta-tya (part. T l ta-ti). But qiq kram, 'stride,' hag only 0- -kram-ya (part. S/irSil kriinta) ; khan, 'dig,' only O m -khh-ya (part. kh8-t8; cp. 154 a 1). 166. There is also a rare indeclinable participle in w a r n . I t is most easily formed by adding the suffix to that form which the root assumes before the i of the 3. sg. aor. passive (155) ;- e. g. 9j i r u ( m q 8-kv-i , 'it was heard ') : '.STmq s'riiv-am, 'having heard.' IV. Infinitive. 167. - The in6nitive (=Lat. supine). is formed by adding ta-m (originally the acc. sg. of a verbal noun) to the form which Otherwise the gerunds of the simple and the causative verb would be identical. IV 168 INDECLINABLE PARTICIPLE I39 the verb assumes before the 7lT tZ of the periphrastic future (152), or the 'ilq tavya (162,2) of the future part. pass.;-e.g. sth8: m s t h k - t u r n (Lat. sta-tum),'to stand'; m b u d h : qtfm bodh-i-tun), ' to awake ' ; YbhE : Y ~ W bhLv-i-turn, ' to be ' ; kr : e k i r - t u r n , ' to do ' ; m d y 4 : w d r 8 ? - t n m (151 b I), 'to see '; ?? vah : ? f v 6 e u m (69 b ) , ' to carry '; sah : s o e u m (69 b) , 'to bear ' ; % cur : mfVm coray-i- turn, ' to steal.' DERIVATIVE VERBS. I. Causatives. 168. This, the commonest class of derivative verbs, is formed with the suffix- aga in the same way as the tenth class (125,4), and is similarly inflected ;--e. g. ni, 'lead' : W'Q nZy-aga, ' cause to lead '; T k ~ , ' make ' : BiTi-Q kPr-aya, ' cause to make'; vid, ' know ' : ved-dga, ' cause to know ' ; sad, 'sit ' : siid-aya, ' set.' a. Most of the verbs in W 5 insert y p before the causative suffix ;--e. g. dB, ' give ' : W'Q dB-p-aya; sth8, ' stand' : sth8-p-aya. b. The causative suffix is retained (as in the tenth class) throughout the conjngation excepting the (reduplicated) aorist (which is connected \\it11 the causative in sense only: cp. 149). Irregularities. I. jiiii, 'knew,' glB, 'languish,' %l mlI, 'fade,' ens, 'wash,' optionally shorten the radical vowel before paya : jiiZ-p-aya or q P P jila-p-aya, &e. a. A few roots ending in other vowels than W Z t a k e m pays:- ji,'conquer ': 51TW i s - p y a , 'cause to win'; i with * adhi, 'read ' : 'I@9TPq aadhy-Zpaya, ' teach '; W 'r, ' go' : I4O DERIVATIVE VERBS I V 169 ar-pays, 'put ' ; ruh, 'grow ' : ro-paya, as veil as roh-lya, ' raise.' 3. W dhu, 'shake,' makes 'ffim dhii-n-aya, 'shake'; pri, 'love ': m~ pri-q-aya, 'delight '; a bhi, 'fear' : H- bhi- S-aya, as well as the regular W'QV bh8y-aya, 'frighten.' 4. labh, 'take,' inserts a nasal : lambh-aya ; while dami,' bite,' retains its nasal: *m da&-aya (cp. 133 A4). 5. han, ' kill,' snbstitutes the denominative stem gh8ta-ya, 'make slaughter of.' 11. Desideratives. 169. Desiderative stems are formed by adding to the root, reduplicated in a peculiar vay, t& suffix a sa, directly in about -- seventy cases, but with the connecting voxrel2; i (i. e. i-!a) in xiearly thirty others. Thus bhii, 'be,' becomes bd-bhG-?a, ' desil:e to be,' but jiv, ' live,' fmffm ji-jiv-iea, desire to live.' Desideratives are inflected like lerbs of the first con- jugation (p. 92). The accent being on ;he reduplicative syllable, the root afi a rule remains unchanged, but- I. before a s a , final i and J u are lengthened, n hile T r and TF become ir or, after l a b i a l s , v iir;-e. g. fa ci, ' gather ' : ci-ci-!a ; sto, ' praise ' : tu-!tG-?a; tf, ' cross ' : ft?~w ti-tir-!a ; 9 ml, 'die ' : mu-mGr-!a. 2. before isa, final Qi, J u, f must take Guna; medial F takes it also, medial V u does so in one case, and medial i not at all ;--e. g. @ s'i, ' lie ' : di-;ay-iFa ; if, ' crush ' : f~m H-iar-ip; Tq nrt, ' dance': fq*$ ni-nart-i?a ; Bubh, 'beautify ' : (u-s'obh-is% ; f i ~ vid, 'know ' : m@f@ vi-vid-isa, as well as vl-vit-sa. I V 1 7 1 DESIDERATIVES I4I S p e c i a l Rules of Redupl ica t ion . 170. I. B a, B, and ';a F are represented by i in the syllable (but -di3 Fir, standing for r after labials, with J u) ;-0. g. qF dah,' burn' : @- di-dhak-sa (55; 69a) ; WsthB, ' stand': f t ~ B ti-gh8-sa; W's~j, 'create': si-syk-+a (63 a) ; Y b h ~ , 'bear ' : & bu-bh~-!a. a. m e reduplication of roots containing P i and J n is normal;-A. g. vii, ' enter ' : f8fm vi-vik-*a (63 b) ; fl budb, 'know ' : %W bu-bhut-sa (55) ; 51 duh, 'milk ' : mv du-dhuk-sa (55 ; 69 a) ; q$ ruh, ' gi.ow ': rfi-ruk-sa. Thus all desideratives, except those from roots containing J u, 3 a, reduplicate with 'q i. a. The two or three roots with initial vowel that take the desiderative reduplicate internally with i : a6, 'eat,' Wfarfm Ad-2-isa ; b'ik?, 'see ' : ic-iks-iss. W L p , 'obtain,' forms its stem by contraction : fql ip-sa. Irregularities. 171. I. w p m , 'go,' and $Than, ' kill,' lengthen their radical voxel; while ~ m a n , ' t h i n k , ' l e r ~ g t h e n s the reduplicative vowel aa well :-fm ji-giip-sa (beside fm jLgam-isa) ; ji-ghim-sa (66 A z) ; mi-mBq-sa (66 A z), 'reflect.' a. grah, ' seize,' PI ach, ' ask,' w s v a p , ' sleep,' take SampraGra~a :- ji-ghrk-sa (55 ; 69 4. @@w pi- p~cch-iaa, an-sup-sa. 3. d8, ' give,' 'VT dh8, ' place,' T mB, ' measure,' pad, 'go,' T)i rabh, 'pasp,' Fly labh, 'take,' iak, ' be able,' contract the first two syllables of the stem in such a ~ a y a? to retain only the reduplication and one consonant of the root : dl-%say- dhi-t-sa (for di-dh(8)-sa: 55), filifl mi-t-sa, pi-t-sa, fCrB ri-p-ea, It-p-say s'i-k-!a. * Iq2 INTENSIVES I V 1 7 2 4. fB ci, 'gather,' f%f ji, 'conquer,' m h n n , ' kill' (cp. 171, I), revert to their original guttural : fa* ci-ki-!a (beside f q h ci-ci-?a) ; fjle ji-gi-?a; ji-ghiitp-sa. 5. Pq gha., 'eat,' changes its q s to ?f. t : ji-ghat-sa, 'be hungry.' 111. I n t e n s i v e s (Freqnentatives). 172. These verbs are meant to convey an intensification or frequent repetition of the action expressed by the simple root. Only monosyllabic verbs beginning with a consonant are liable to be turned into intensives. Hence neither verbs of the tenth class nor roots like 85 ail can form this derivative. About sixty roots (less than half the number found in Vedic literature) take the intensive in Sanskrit, but forms of it rarely occur. The stem, which takes a peculiar kind of strong reduplication, has two forms. The one adds the personal endings immediately to the reduplicated stem (accented on the first syllable in strong forms), being conjugated in the Parasmaipacla only, like a verb of the thild or reduplicated class (p. 96) ;--e. g. *~?lf?I b6-bho-ti from bhii, 'be.' The other adds accented 'Q ya, in the same way as the pasbive (154), to the reduplicated stem, being conjugated in the iitmanepada only, like the passive (p. 130);4. g. bo-bhii-yb-te from % bh6. a. The first intensive may optionally insert if;? before termina- tions beginning with consonants in the strong forms. Stems ending in consonants do not take Gupa either before this f i or before terminations beginning with vowels ;-e. g. f~ vid, ' know'; %%m v6-ved-mi or -flMfS v6-"id-i-mi, -*: ve-vidmi$, imper.-- v6-vid-Sni ; but hti, ' call ' : *- iff~ j6-ho-mi or 5fbqffU j6-hav-I-mi, 3%- j6-hav-iini. JV I74 IRREGULARITIES I43 S p e c i a l Rules of Redupl ica t ion . 173. The reduplicative ~yllable takes Guna and lengthens a ;-e. g. @Fl"nij, ' cleanse ' : n/-nek-ti ; ni, ' lead ' : m n e - n i - y & - t e ; w b u d h , ' know ': m? bs-budh-i-ti; 4 . ~ l u , 'float ' : po-plu-ya-te; 7tT. tap, ' be hot ' : U ts-tap-ya-te. a. Roots ending in B y a m repeat the nasal instead of lengtheni~lg the vowel ;-e. g. 5iiq kram, 'stride ' : cai-kram-i-ti, can-kram-yA-te. b. Roots containing % insert ti between the reduplication and the root ;-e. g. 9 my, ' die ' : mar-i-mar-ti ; dFi, 'see': @'i$@tdar-i-d$-ya-te; =n:t,'dancey : v%* nar-I-nyt-ya-te. Irregularities. 174. 3J gr, 'awake,' reduplicating with B (as from gar), forms the stem jE-gr, which has almost assumed the character of a root (134 A 4) and is used as the only present stem of the verb : 3. sg. mP jH-gar-ti, 3. pl. - j&g-ati. a. dah, 'burn,' and jabh, 'snap at,' reduplicate with a nasal, while car, ' move,' changes its radical vowel as well : wHq dan-dah-i-ti and dan-dah-ya-te; jakjabh-y&-te ; eaG-elr-y&-te. b. pad, ' go,' besides reduplicating with a nasal, inserts f i after i t : h e pa-n-i-pad-ya-te ; while dr%, 'run,' redn- plicates as if (173 b) i t contained r (only that the inserted vowel is T, i, which, however, is long by position) : h - i - d r s - t i (cp. I34 A 4). = 44 DENOMINATIVES v I75 IV. Denominatives. 175. A large number of verbs, inflected like those of the a-conjugation (p. 92), are derived, with the suffix q yi, from nouns, to which they express some such relation as 'be or act like,' ' treat as,' ' make,' ' desire.' Before the suffix, final i and 3 u are lengthened; a often is also, but sometimes becomes f i (cp. 154, I). Examples are :-w namas-yi, ' pay homage (namas) to ' ; sviirni-ya, ' regard as a &aster ' (sviimi) ; *W?l gopZ-yi, ' be like a herdsman (go-p8) to,' ' protect '; TTjrm rBjB-ya, ' play the king' (rzja) ; drums-ya, ' rank Y as a tree ' (druma) ; putd-ya, ' desire a son ' (putra). a. Denominatives which have the causative accent (i-ya) are reckoned verhs of the tenth class by the Hindu grammarians. Such are mantri-ya, 'take counsel' (mdntra), a7f~ kirti-ya, ' celebrate ' (kirtf, fame ') ; W$q var~i-ya, ' depict,' ' describe' (virna, ' colour ') ; katha-ya, 'tell how,' ' relate' (ka-tbim, ' how ? '). CHAPTER V INDECLINABLE WORDS Prepositions. 176. Owing to the caves having a more independent meaning than in other Aryan languages, the number of prepositions is qnite small, and their use is very limited in Sanskrit. They are nearly all postpositionsl, and they do not 'govern,' but only define the general sense of, the case to which they are added. I n Homeric Greek the prepositions preserve their original position as well as accent in anastrophe : t h o (Skt. Bpa), irn (Bpi), rcfpa (pArS), r f p i (phi). b* - V l i 7 PREPOSITIONS I45 of the dozen Vedic postpositions (also employed as verbal pre- fixes) Sanskrit preserves only three in common use :- I. a g $nu, 'after,' and prati (Gk. r p o r i ) , 'towards,' after the accusative. ,. i, ' from ' or ' up to,' before the ablative. 8. The following are also occasionally met with, nearly always following their case :-BR abhi, ' against ' (acc.) ; puris, ' before ' (gen.) ; BW Bdhi, ' over ' (loc.), antxr (Lat. inter, Eng. under), ' \\ithin,' ' between' (loc., larely gen.). Prepositional Adverbs. 177. Thdoss or obsolescence of the Vedic p~epositions in the true sense is compensated in Sanskrit by the increasing use of ungenuine prepositions, that is to say, those which cannot be to verbs and the origin of which fiom cases is still for the most part clear. They are en~ployed with all the oblique cases except the locative and the dative; with the lptter case no prepositional word is ever connected in Sanskrit. These adverbs are given in the following list, glouped under the cases which they accompany :- a. Acc. BTTJ ant& and, a?aTq hiarena, ' between,', ' without ' ; tho latter also ' regaiding ' ; f~ nikaQ and 'flllVT sanxigii, 'near' ; Wm: abhi-tal?, Vfi~f: pari-tah, I&: ~arv8-tab, US?Ta: samanta-tab, 'aronnd' ; Wq?f: ubhay&tah, ' onboth sidqs of '; q 7 q p ~ 1 eva, 'beyond'; 'Qrnqjivat, 'during,' 'up to,' 'till' (also abl.). b. Instr. $ah$, q q sarnim, m s % k & n ~ , siir- dham, ' (together) with ' ; vi~,'without,"except ' (a1,co acc., rarely abl.). c. Abl. All the adve~bs used with this case express some modification of the fundamental ablative notion of sepalation :- L 1 4 ~ PREPOSITIONAL ADVERBS V 178 I. 'before' (of time) : V* arvkk, pu~6 , & p i h a m , lTF$ pkk. a. 'after ' (of time) : W-@an-antaram, GrdhvBm, VTq param, m: para-tab, ps re~a , prabh~ti (originally a fen?. nouil meaning ' commencement '). 3. 'outside,"out of': e: bahib. 4. 'apartfrom': a;97 any&- tra ; * ~ t e (also acc.). d. Gen. Nearly all the adverbs used with this case exprese some relation in space :-I. ' before,' ' in presence of' : Bgre, m: agra-t6b, gT;?1: pura-tab, purss-t&t, platy-ak~m, fmaq sam-aksdrn. a. 'after ' : 3. 'beyond' : m: para-tah, m q parcls-tZt. 4. ' above,' ' over,' 'upon7: aPfi upAri (also acc.) and m u p h i - % t ; the former also ' with regard to.' 5. 'below ' : m: adhBh and m a d h 8 s - t l i t . - W i t h the gen. is also used & kyte, 'for the sake of.' 178. The case-notions of the accusative ('whither'), ablative ('whence '), and locative ('where ') are often paraphrased by nouns meaning ' proximity,' such as ~ f m antik6, ups-kagtha, ni-kaw, sa-k&, saq-nidhi, W% sam-ipa, pZrBv6 ('side'). In the acc. they mean 'towards,' 'to,' 'near'; in the ctbl., 'from'; and in the loc., 'near,' 'in the presence of': in each case governing the genitive. For example :--*sf- ' go to the king ' ; m: ' he withdrew from Raghu'; K4 ll@ 'beside \me,' 'near me' ; alfta m: ' they praised Nala in her presence.' Prepositional Gerunds. 179. Several indeclinable participles are uaed in the sense of prepositions :- r. with w c . sf- ud-dist-ye, ' pointing at ' = ' toward~,' V 180 PREPOSITIONAL GERUNDS I47 'at,' 'for ' ; Z-dS-ya, ghi-tv5, 'taking,' ni-tvB, ' leading ' = 'with ' ; mq adhi-sthz-ya, m- ava-lamb-ya, '.aTfSjl?P :-ii-tya, 3WSW H-sthg-ya, ' re- sorting to'='by means of'; ~ m ~ k - t ~ Z , ~ ~ a r i - t ~ a j - ~ a . a varjay-i-tvS, ' putting aside '=' except' ; adhi-kr-tya, 'putting at the head'='with reference to,' 'about.' 1. with abl. 8-rabh-ya, 'beginning frorn'='since.' Conjunctive and Adverbial Particles. 180. an&, in exhortations='pray': 'pray do it; kim abga: I. 'why, pray? ' a. 'how much more? ' h-tha, : I. introducing ~omething new at the beginning of a sentence = ' now,' 'then,' 'afterwards.' a. in the headings of books, chapters, sections, ' now ' = ' here begins ' (oppo~ed to iti, 'here ends'). 3. connecting parts of a sentence='and,' 'also.' 4. ' i f ' : w w r f i r 'if I do not follow them, I shall go to Yama's abode.'-- trtha kim, ' what else ? '= ' i t is so,' 'certainly,' 'yes.'-- atha vfi : I. ' or else,' ' or.' 2. correcting a previous statement = 'or rather,' 'but.' 3. adding a corroborative statement, 'or so '='so for instance': Wq 'thus it is well said.' * Btho, 'then,' 'afterwards' (see B u). anyac ca, ' and another thing ' =' and besides,' ' more- over.' a p a r a m , ' further,' 'moreover,' ' besides.' Wf4 &pi: 1. connecting (like V ca) parts of a sentence='like- w h ' 'moreover,' ' and ' (Mq---3af~ ' both-and'). a. 'also,' Ion one's own part ': -3bfV *TS 'Darnanaka also (on hi8 part) went away.' 3. 'even,' ' thoughs : *sR 'even L a 148 CONJU~CTIVE AND OTHER PARTICLES V ,So a child'; mfmfV ektkjapi, though alone.' 4. 'ouly,' 'but ' (of time) : a m ' but a lnoment.' 5. 'a l l ' with numerals : e m f @ m ~ q ' o f all the four castes.' I n the above five senses ~ f @ api alaa!s f o l l o ~ s the word to nhich it belongs. It i \ also used at the beginning of a sentence as an intelrogative larticle, and nith the o p t a t i ~ e to expless a a i sh or preference ~ f i mt ~ 4 8 ' i s your penauce prospering?' %fV fT m: WTq' aonltl that the time had cuille'; afV f l T ~ T s l $ qm q ' I mould lather abandou life than thee.'--afi m9 api nZma, 'pelhaps ' (see T q nIillla). aFTqhla,lir, ' enough,' constlued with the instrumental, germ~d or infinitive, expresses a prohibition . ~g 8- 'away with fear' ; TF199TW 'cease reproaching me' ; l T ~ t f i m ' d o not a11 aken.' i t i , ' t h u s S : I. isused aftei the exact nrolds of quotations. With verbs of saying i t supplies the place of inverted commas and of the indirect construction in English : qmi qifiqm U ' he said to me, I will do thy bidding (tavGjfiSm),' or 'he told me that he would do my bidding.' a. It i~ similarly used to quote thonghts, intentions, knowledge, though not uttered: m'fSf9 ~a9Ff3f'f 9m i;ft )~,faq: 'one should not despise a king, tho~lgh a child, ( thinking=) because he is a mere human being ': ~TT-R -< @ ~ 3 ' a gift which is presented (thinking ' i t ought to be given'=) fionl a sense of duty ' ; T ~ 6 ~ e ~i9a?m 'iiTmq ' (the knowledge) that he reads the book of the law, is not a cause (of confidence i n him).' 2.='here ends,' at the end of boolts, chapters, sections, act? : i?JF&?Sg: 'here ends the third act.' 3. ' i n the capacity of,' 'as legards,' ' as for': Xf'tRfqrlft gqt Rgqfm f&E Vf3q 'as for (doing it) quickly, it (would \, ,*, CONJUNCTIVE AND OTHER PARTICLES 149 be) easy ; as for (doing i t) ~ecrctly, it ~vould require consideration.' (See also & q k i m and ?(WT tatha.) iva, being enclitic, follolvs the n-ord to whiclt i t belongs ill sense :-I. ' like ' : q ~ ~ ~ f i ' this man looks like a tllief.' 2. 'a* if,' 'as it were ' : FilTrnrl '&T~~?T fiTff%WT. ' I see, a. it were, S'iva himself hefore me.' 3. ' sonle\\-hat' : qfwq? 'somealtat angrily.' q. ' almost ' : Zj'&f%iq ' altnort an hour.' 5. 'jnst,' 'quite ' : rail-ky; reduce to subjection,' 9m vas' i-bh~, ' become sub- ject' ; Q- parikhi-kyta, ' t u n e d into n moat' (- I~:irikhB). The sense of these ~er l ra l compour~tls i~nl~l ieu n t 1 . a ~ ~ - 1 Tlie preposition 3l'f i reverses the sense of verbs of going or giving ;--e. g. qlF( 5-gam, ' come ' ; arZ;T i-d:, ' take! ,' r 68 VERBAL COMPOUKDS I VI 185 formation; thus m w ratni-blltita would mean 'turned into a jewel,' but ratna-bhfita, 'being a jewel,' as a nomiual compound (188, I c). 11. Nominal Compounds.. 185. The power of combining two or more words into one, uhich belongs to all the Indo-European languages, has been more l a~ge ly developed i n Sanskrit than in any of the others. Not only are long and complex compounds here in constant use, but they also take the place of the analytical modes of expression ~ rh ich prevail in the other cognate tongues. Thus KBlidIisa describes a river as ' \I-ave-sgitation-loquacious-bird-low-girdle- btl~rg-ed,' while we should saj : 'her girdle-stling is a row of birds loquacions because of the agitation of the waves.' Com- ponnds being therefore of great syntactical impo~tancein Sanskrit, i t is necessary to distinguish and classify the va~ious kinds, in older that the meaning of a Sanskrit sentellce may be clea~ly unde~stood. The most convenient division is into the three classes of Go-ordinatives, Determinatives, and Possessives. The nete~minatives, 60 called because the former member determines (or qnalifies) the latter, nre of two kinds, Dependent and Descriptive. Possessives a te secondary compounds, consisting chiefly of Deterininatires t n ~ n e d into adjectives. a. All words making up a compound except the last, oldinarily appear in the form of their uninflected stem ; those w&h two stems f -- ~ ~ s i n g the weak, and those with three, the middle stem (73 a). - The laat word, in the case of Co-ordinatives and Determinatives, retalns, as a rule, its usual f o ~ m and inflexion, as well as, if a substantive, its gender; while, in Yossessives, it is va~iable like an adjective. E g. m: deva-dBseh,m. 'servant of a god, or of the gods '; V I 196 NOMINAL COMPOUNDS 169 mmhm sv5mi-sev~, f. 'serving a master' ; ~rjld rlija-karma, n. 'duty of a king ' ; B T T s a - n B m a n , ' homonymous': nom. m. M, f. d, n. 1. Co-ordinative (Dvandva) Compounds. 186. These consist of two (or more) nouns, far less con~monly adjectives, very rarely adverbs, connected in sense by the copula 'and.' Dvnndva, the n a ~ n e applied to Co-ordinatives by the Hindu gram~narians, means 'pair ' or 'couple.' I. Compounded substantives are inflected in the dual or plural accor%=gas two or more objects are denoted, the gander being that - - of the last member ;-e. g. & hasty-aka", 'an elephant and - a horse' ; : hasty-a6v8b1, 'elephants and horses.' \Then, however, the parts of the compound express not individuals but categories, the Dvatidaa is inflected in the neuter singular as a collective ;-o. g. VfRT. g a v ~ ~ i v a m , ' kine and horse^.' Names of ohjects associated in pair* by way of contrast are often combined in Dvandvss ;-e. g. fern: simha-gaj%b, 'lions anil elephants'; MT~: ~~rarne~a-n15rj~1iil), ' dogs and cats' ; aho-rstra, nl. n. 'day and night2.' The number of members in the compound is not limiter1 and is often con- sidera ble ;-e. g. qqmf ~ V T : deva-gandharva- mdnusa~raga-r5ksasii~, ' gods, heavenly musicians, men, serpents, and demona.' a. Adjectives (including past participles) are comparatively seldom compounded as Dvandvas; -e. g. m G f q uttara- daksina, 'north and sonth ' ; @* g i t ~ s n a , 'cold and hot ' ; fffmfir7 sitwsita. 'white and black"; WlWf ghanGyafa, Cp. Lat. su-ove-taurilirr. 2 Cp. Gk. v u ~ O r j p e p ~ v Cy. Arvxo-~ihas. 170 (70-ORDINATIVE COMPOUNDS \'I 186 I 'denbe and extensive' (forest); -8 Irfta_akyta, 'done and undor~e ' ; mm rnrta_ajZta, 'dead and unboln.' a. Two past pa~ticiples are sometimes compounded to express iillnledlate seclnence, the relation of the second to the first being often translatable by 'as soon as' ;--e. g. WE! dpta-nasta, 'seen and canished'='vanished as soon as seen' ; ~niT"s8 j8ta-petri, ' died a8 yoon as born' ; WiTllf?iem ut-kh8ta-i- prati-mp~ta, ' uprooted and replanted ' ; sup te t th i t a , ' having slept and arisen,' i. e. 'having just arisen from sleep.' 3. Examples of the rare Dvandvas composed of a d v e l h ~ ale -3 szyAm-pl%tar, ' i n the eT ening and morning ' ; fm~- di+H-naktam, ' hy day and night.' a. Occasionally complex Dvandvas, made np of compounds of another clas', ale met with ; - e. g . ; g ~ & @ i ~ ~ ~ ~ vy5kirna-kecara+ka18In-il111kha,' having a dishevelled mane and terrific jams,' consists of t v o possessives (189). b. Of the numerous Vedic D~andvas conqisting of the names of deities, each member being in the dual and separately accented, only very few snrvive in Sanhkrit : wl-7 mitrfdl-vgronau, ' Mitra and Varuga' ; Vrnm+ dy$v81-l~rthivxah, ' Heaven - and Earth.' I n cases other than nom. voe. acc. the final member only is inflected: fffsTT~q~3: ~nitrZ-var~uyqob and QlTQfq*: dgPvZ-pythivyob. C. m?it:, 'mother,' and fig pitr, 'father,' as the first - rneml~cr of a Dvandva of relationship, assume the form of the nonl. sing. : rnrn-3 miit%-pitarau, 'mother and father' ; ff?8~3* 11it~-putrau, 'father and son.' ~ i t r i and Dy&vi are Vedic duals. This type of compound ma3 perhapa originally due to the juxtaposition of elliptic duals (c) ;-e. g. Mitrd, ' t h e two blitraa' being=' Mitra andvaruna.' qTw dvS-d;\ga is a numeral Dvandva ('two and ten') in which the first number is an old dual. V I 187 CO-ORDINATIVE @OMPOlUNDS '7* The masc. of co-ordinate pairs of relation* can be used alone in the d u d so as to include the fem:ale; - e.. g. pitaran = 'parents '; bva:urau ' ='paaents-in-law' fl putrau= 'go, and darghter9 (a5 well as ' t w o sons "); & b h i s a r a l ='brother and sister '.' a a. Dependent (Tatpnrusa) Dceterminatives. 187. A depenctent determinative is ofle in which22 @st member depends on the last, the symtactical relation of the former Y to the latter being that of an attribute (noiuu or in &lique case. The compound may b e a ~nbs t~an t ive or an adjective, as the last member is 0n.e or the other. E. g. ?fm tat-purusa, m. ' t he man of' him,' ' his man ' (an example used by the Hindu grammalians td designate the class) ; pf'i Biira-rnznin, adj. ' t h i l ~ l i n g o u e ~ ~ e l f a hero '; mfa guva_upeta, adj. ' endovecl with virtues ' (up)aJ:ta i s a past p a ~ t ).In dependcut compounds tho firot membter may have the sense of any oblique case, but that of the gel]. i s b y far the commonest. ' I. Acc. The last member i s naturally :always an adjective of a verbal natule3;-JrnQ ja ja-prepu, ~ d j . 'desiring victory' (praipsu is a desid. adj., cp. I fo,2] ; gf W ~ W var~a -bhoaa , adj. 'to be enjoyed for a joai ' (bhogya is a fut,. part. pass.); grhGgatn, aclj. 'come to the house' (g;g:ata is a past part.); grzma-p~iipta, 'arrived at the v i ~ l l a ~ e t . ' (A past part. is mole commonly placed a t the beginning:, vhen the compound ' Cp. Lat. soceri= ~ocer et socrus. Cp. Gk. d8cAqol and Lat. fratres =. ' brothe~r and sister.' Cp. Gk. im6-6apo-r, ' horse-taming,' Lat. jj8-dex, 'pointing out the law,' 'judge.' ' The past part. gato, 'gone to,' is offten used a t the end of T.~tpurusas ir the sense of ' relating to,' existing i n ';--e. g. ha~ ta -~a ta , held in the hand.' I 72 DEPENDENT DETERMINATIVES VI 187 becomes a possessive;-e.g. priipta-@%ma, lit. 'having a reached village.') 2.1nstr. m8sa-p~rva,'earlier by amonth'; m m q sv~rni-sadria, 'like (his) master' (cp. 199, 2 c); ~ & q alpaijna, 'deficient by alittle'='almost~nished' ; *mahi-hata, ' killed by a make'; e~ deva-datta,Igiven by the gods' (cp. Bed-Goroc), commonly used as a proper name with an auspicious sense (Dieil- donne') and often denoting an indefinite person='so-and-so.' 3. Dat. vm giipadiiru, n. 'wood for a sacrificial post'; fqm viqu-tali, m.' offering to Visnu'; m?i~ prahhu-hita, adj. ' dvantageoos to the king.' 4. Abl. H m svarga-patita, adj. 'fallen from heaven ' ; WqSg bhavad-anya, adj. 'different from yon.' 5. Gen. qw rzja-purusa, m. ' king's man ' ; ' vyzghra-huddhi, f. 'thought of (its being) a tiger.' 6. LOG.- uro-ja, adj.'produced on the breast '; -qmq a;va-korida, adj. 'skilled in horses' ; 9- grha-jtita, adj.' born . in the house'; E ( $ T ~ piirv%hy+kyta, adj. 'done in the fore- , noon.' a. Some dependent compounds retain the casetermination in the governed noun ;-e. g.WI%fB dhanam-jaya, aclj. ' winning booty,' m. as a proper name; q@q parasmai-pada, n. 'word for another'; Z~TW viicas-pati, m. 'lord of speech' ; yurlhi-?$him, adj. 'firm in battle,' m. as a proper name. b. If a root forms the last member of a Tatpurusa it undergoes no change except that I is shortened to V a, while i, B 11, W F add yt (cp. 182, I a ) ;- e. g. B q vara-(la, adj. ' granting boons ' (q dz, ' give ') ; -7 viiva-ji-t, adj. ' all-conquer- ing ' ; Gm karma-kpt, adj. 'doing work,' 'laborious.' C. At the end of a dependent, vi;esa, nl, means ' special kind of,' i.e. 'choice,' ' pre-eminent ' ; similarly antara, n. \'I I 88 DEPENDENT DETERMINATIVES I73 'difference,' generally nieans 'other,' sometimes 'special,' 'par- ticular' ;-e. g. Wq?fB* tejo-viiesa, m. ' extlaordinary splen- dour'; @TTT de ien ta ra , n. another country' ; ,~p%ya_anta~ , n. ' a special means ' ; HTBFTsifC bh%ya_antara, *. ' particular conversation*.' d. artha, m. ' object,' ' purpose,' is often used adverbially 1 st the end of dependents in the acc. and less colnmonly in the 1 dst, and loc.; -e. g. ~4-q damayanty-artharn, ' for the j sake of Damayanti.' a b. Descriptive (KarmadhSraya) Determinatives. 188. A desc1ipt;ve determinative is one in which the f i ~ s t - member describes the last, the syntactical relation of the foizier .r--- to the latter being that of a pledicate. This lelation may be expressed in three ways :- I. By a moan ( ~ n appos1tio11);-e. g. vf$ iZjijs;rl;i, m. ' king sage,' i, e. ' royal sage ' ; stli-jana, m. ' womeu-folk.' a. A title is thus sometimes compounded ~ \ i t h a proper name ; 4. g. m m l J a U am8tya-RZksasa, J I i n ~ s t e ~ RZksasa.' Oc- casionally the ploper name comes filst;--e.g. w b m Sa~dili-miit:, ' Mother S ~ ~ d i l i . ' b. Theapposition often expresses a tomparis,~n ; - - e . g . S l m jalada-iyZma,adj. 'dark as a cloud', f?@f$fpt hima-:iha, adj. 'cold as ~ce ' ; S ~ ~ f l r i ~ j a l a g n t a s ' - c a n c I r d - c a ~ ~ a l , adj.' fickle as the moon reflected in the water.' When both members are substantives the object with which a comparison is made ir placed not a t the beginning of the compound,-but at the end;-e.g. pnr~sa-vyZghia, n?. ' man-tiger,' i. e. ' tiger-like man,' ' human tiger'; qm vzh-madhu, n. ' hpeech-honey,' i. e, 'honied speech '; vvw psda-padma, n. 'foot-lotus,' i. e. 'lotus- like foot.' I 74 DESCRIPTIVE DETERMINATIVES VT 188 c. The past part. q b h i i t a , 'become,' 'existent,' is often added, in the sense of 'being,' to an appositional subbtantive (uhich is thus turned into an adj.) ;-e.g. 7~9% tamo-bhiita, ' existing in a state of darkness'; ratna-bhiita, 'being a jewel' (cp. 184 b, note). a. By an Adjective ;-e. g. krya-sarpa, rn. ' black snake ' ; -3 nila utpala, n. ' blue lotus '; ma- dhgrrehna, m. 'midday '7 T&lT$ ardha-mzrga, m. ' half way '; W h - vartamEna-kavi, rn. 'living poet.' a. Those compounds in which the adjective is a numeral are by the Hindu grammarians treated as a special class, called Dviga (' two-cow '1. They are generally neuters cjr feminines (in f; i) evpre~sing aggregates;-e. g. tri-loka, n. or f ~ m tri-loki, f. 'the three wollds.' They mag also become adjectives by being turned into possessives (189) ;-e.g. fiw tri-guna, n. ' the three qualities ' ; adj. ' poesessing the three qualities.' b. @ piirva, ' previous,' i s put a t the end, instead of advel bially at the beginning,in the sense of ' before,' after past participles ;- e. g. @ adj. 'seen before.' C. At the beginning of a descriptive compound mahat becomes mahz, while at the end T T q r Z j a n , T$Tahan, W'f% sakhi, ~6 riitri, become m, 8q, W, TT7 (m. n.) respectively ;-e.g. SmTEf: Igreat king'; m m p u n y ~ e h a m , ' anspicions day ' ; ~ U B : ' dear friend '; ~ G T - a1 dha-15t1 a, m. 'midnight.' d. anyo-(a)nya and rlfPlf para-s-pala, 'one another,' are a kind of irregular coml ound in which the nom. masc. form, due to frequent syntactical jnxtaposition, became generalized; thus acc. sing. fem. = v-w anjz-anj~m. 3. By an Adverb (inclosive of particles and plepositions);- v J 89 DESCRIPTIVE DETERBIINATIVES I75 ,, g. g w hu-jana, m. ' honest man '; adhi-loka, m. 'highest world ' ; mT?I a-jEZta, adj. ' unknown '; qTjfrn yathGkta , adj. 'as stated ' ; l&7l evam-gata, adj. ' thus faring.' 8. Compounds of this kind, when used in the acc. neuter as adverbs, are treated by the Hindu grammarians as a special class called AvyitS-bhg~a ('indeclinable state'). Such are Tm.99 ,nu-liipam, ' conformably' ; qm$i yatha-{akti, ' according to ability '; af-q sa-vinayam, ' politely ' ; q~&4q yzvaj- jivam, 'for life.' 3. Possessive (Bahamihi) Compounds. 189. These compounds a ~ @ i ~ ! l ~ L y e ~ agreeing with a subitantive expressed or understood. They are determinatives -- (generally of the acljectivally descriptive class) ending in substau- tives, which are made to agree in gender, number, and case with another substantive. Thus T&?@ bahu-vrihi, m. 'much rice,' becomes an 'adjective in the sense of 'having much rice' (an example used by the Hindn grammarians to designate the class). Every kind of determinative can be turned into a possessive;- -- e. g. w m indra-s'atru, m. 'foe of Indra' : adj. 'having India as a foe ' ; mqm bbima-parZkrama, rn. ' terrible prowess ' : adj. ' of terrible probes8 ' ; f-5 tri-p6d, adj. ' three-footed ' (Gk. rpi-?ro8-, Lat. tri-ped-); 3- adho-mnkha, adj. ' down- cast ' (mukha, n. ' face ') ; q 7 a-putra, adj. ' sonless '; & sa-hhgrya, adj. 'accompanied by his wife' (bhiirys); a- tath8-vidha,adj. ' of such a kind ' (viclhi, m.); & 9 ~ d u r - r n a u a s , adj. nom. m.f. ( ~ u I J - ~ P v < F ) , 'ill-minded,' ' dejected.' a. I n the Vedic language possessives were distinguished from determinatives by accent;--e. g. r~ja-putrj, 'king's son'; rsji-putra, adj. 'having kings as sons.' b. Possessives often come to be used as substantives or proper I I 76 POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS V I 189 names ;-e.g. bu-hyd, 'good-hearted,' beconles n~asc.'friend' ; m m satJ&-brav~s, adj, nom. m. ' of true fame,' becomes the name of a man (cp. ' E T C O - K X ~ ~ F ) . c. Possessives are often very intricate, containing seseral other compounds. Thus [(vici-ksohha)-stanita-(vibapa-kreQi)]-(k58ci- g u ~ L ) is based on an appositional descriptive consisting of two main parts. The second, ' k i i ~ ? c i - ~ u ~ a , ' m. 'girdle-string,' is a Tatpuru?a. The first is an adjectival descriptive in which the , Tatpurusa 'vihaga-s'regi,' 'row of birds,' is described by ' vici- ksobha-stanita,' 'loquacious through wave-agitaDion.' The latter is a compound Tatpurusa, in which ' stanita' is q~~alified by the simple Tatpurorja 'vici-krjobha,' 'agitation of the waves.' fit- mql$' i i t e ~ ; n a - k i r a ~ a u , 'moon and sun,' is an esan~ple of a Eahovrihi which is used as 2 substantive and contains a Dvandva. I t i s i n reality a kind of contracted Dvandva ( ' the cool and the hot-rayed' for ' t he cool-rayed and the hot-rayed'). . d. Bahuvrihis with a past participle at the beginning are syntactically often equivalent to a gerund or loc. absolute ;-e. g. 743TWTi tyakta-nagara, 'having the city left ' = q* msT nagaray tyaktv8, 'having left the city,' or qe nagare tyakte, ' the city being left.' e. Bahuvrais based on appositional descriptives often imply R . compar i son ; -e .g . '~~wcandra~nana , 'moon-faced' ; 9mU padma-aksa (f. I), 'lotus-eyed.' Inversion of the natural order does not take place here as in descriptives (cp. 188, I b ) . f, W9J kalpa, m. 'manner,' and pr5y~1, m.'chief part,' aro used a t the end of Bahuvniis in t.he sense of 'like,' 'almost' ; e. g. TTJ7lqm amria-kalpa, adj. 'ambrosia-like ' ; YfHTamq prabh6ta-prsya, adj. 'almost dawning.' I n the same position para and 919 parama, adjectives meaning 'highest,' 'chief,' used au substantives, signify 'engrossed in,' 'intent on ' (lit. ' having V 1 189 POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS I77 au the chief thing ') ;--e. g. cint8-para, immersed in thought.' g. mT mZtrL, f. 'measure,' is used at the end of Bahuvrihis in the sense of ' only ' ;-e. g. -7 m: nZmam5trZ n a d b , 'men bearing the name only.' At the end of past participles it means 'as soon as ' ;-e. g. SIT?ITiIT: y;rj: jata-m8trab iatrub, 'an enemy as soon as (he has) come into being.' I t is, however, generally employed as a neuter substantive in this Tcay ;-e. g. jala-mltram, ' water alone ' (lit. ' that which has water for its measure '). h. M? Bdi, m. and W$?f prabhyti, f. 'beginning,' adya, 'first ' (used as a substantive), are employed a t the end of Bahu- v1,ihis in the seuse of 'and the rest,' 'and so forth,' 'etcetera,' primarily as acljectives and secondarily as substantives;-4.g. (w) F T W : (devit) Indrajidagah, ' (the gods) Indra and the rest ' (lit. ' having Indra as their beginning') ; y m e i t 3 d i , n. ' heginning thus ' (i.e. with these words)='and so on.' mTi pnru-gama, ~4 pUr~a , 9T:FTT purah-sa~ a, 'preceding' ='leader,' are sin~ilarlp employed in the sense of 'preceded, led, ur accompanied by ' ;--e. g. qTl ?%@qZ?T: ' the gods led 1,y Imdra.' ~4 and 9T:UT are also used adverbially a t the end of Rnhuvrihis ;-e. g . fq7$q with the accompaniment of a snlile,' ' smiliugly ' ; w W T m : B T q bahumana-puralparam, ' with respect,' 'respectfully.' J. Words meaning 'hand' are placed at the end of possessives ;- c . g. 'fT-~fq iastra-psni, ' weapon-handed,' ' having a weapon in one's hand ' ; 3'fTW Lush-hasta, ' with kuga-grass in (his) ll:lll(l.' 1. 'l'lie suffix 77 in is ~deonastically added to d dharma, 'duty,' 'fTh iila, ' character,' WlFlT malE, ' garland,' q m 4818, ' house,' '$HT iobhii, ' beauty,' varna, 'colour '; -s. g. n I 78 POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS 1'11 1yo vara-varp-in, 'of excellent colour.' The adjectival suffix 'iii ka is similarly often added, especially to unusual finals, as to words in r , to feminines in f i (like ~ " t nadi), and in the feminine to words in in ; - e . g . ~ * mrta-bhartr-k~, 'whose husband is dead'; m f sa-patni-ka, 'accompanied by his wife.' CHAPTER VII OUTLINES O F S Y N T A X 190. As the great bulk of the literature consists of poetry, the syntactical-anangement of the Sanskrit sentence is primitive and undeveloped, as compared with Latin and Greek. I t s main characteristic is the predominance of co-ordination, long coni- pounds and gerunds constantly taking the place of relative and other subordiuate clauses, while the oratio obliqua is entirely - - -- absent. Another feature is the comparatively rare uHe of the - --- finite verb (frequent enough in the Vedic language), for which - - past participles or verbal nouns are very often substituted. There is also a marked fondness for passive constructions. A special feature of Sanskrit syntax is the e~nployment of the locative absolute. The Order of Words. 191. The usual arrangement of words in a Sanskrit sentence is:-first, the subject with its attributes (a genitive preceding it^ nominative); second, the object with its adjuncts (which precede it); and lastly, the verb. r Adverbs or extensions of the predicate are commoilly placed near the beginning, and unemphatic connective particlee follow --.. . - --? VII 192 THE ORDER OF WORDS I79 the first word;-e.g. FIT- & i;rH W W 'but ' Janaka went in haste to his own city.' When there is a vocative, it generally comes first. Instead of the subject any other word requiring emphasis may be placed at the head of the sentence ;-e. g. Timt 9 'at night you must not enter the monastery.' a. The subject, if a {ersonal pronoun, is not expressed unless being inherent in finite verbal forms. Even the general subject ' one ' or 'they ' is often indicated by the verb alone ;- e. g. mc one should say '; w: ' they say '='it is said.' h b. The copula 'is,' unless the tense or mood has to be 9 ckhJd expressed, is generally omitted. In that case the predicate yre- cedes its noun;-e.g. $W3T *: 'the night (ia) cold.' If the -. predicate bears any emphasis, 3Pf@i is used, not Vfin ;--e.g. 3 fi l iPPTmWl~~w: f l W H v f i r m ' h e who is di~jtinguished by knowledge, penance, or birth, is (certainly) to be respected by the twice-born.' C. Just as attlibutes precede their nouns and the qualifying 9 .word comes first in compounds, so a relative or other subordiuate 3' 1. -- clause precedes the principal clause, which regularly begins with -- a correlative word;-e. g. pW lit. 'of whom wealth, of him power,' i.e. ' he who has wealth has power.' Similarly w--v, WPq-i?T$q, kc. . . >'A ;v The Article. 192. There is properly neither an indefinite nor a definite article in Sanskrit. But 'one' and afw 'some' (rrg), being frequently used to express 'a certain,' may sometimes be translated by ' a.' Similarly fl ' that ' (110) may, when referring to persons or things just mentioned, be rendered by 'the';-4.g. B ' the king' (of whom we are speaking). N a I 80 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX VII 193 I Ill Hnmber. 193. 1. Singular collective words are sometimes used at the end of compounds to form a plural; -e.g. str i- jaw, m. ' wo~nenfolk '=' women.' Such collectives are sometimes them- selves used in the plural ;-e. g. $Fiiii: or aq~: ' the world,' peoplg.' 2. The dual number is in regular use and of strict application, the ~ ' lura l practically never referring to two objects. I t is there- fore invariably employed with the names of things occurring in pairs, snch as parts of t he body ;-e.g. -3 T ' t he hands and the feet.' A masc. dual is sometimes used to express a rnale and female of the same class ;--e. g. 52q71: fPTlff ' the parents of the aniverse' (see 186,3c, p. 1 7 1 ) . 3. a. The plural is sometimes applied to others by the spealier or xr i te r as a mark of great respert, S , q and )mX: taking ' t , l ~ l iace of ~ a u d ~ ~ ~ ; - e . ~ . 3~ Wff$!f: 'has your Majesty heard? ' In this sense the plur. qTT: ' feet ' is employed instead of the dual (cp. 1 9 3 , ~ ) ;-e. g. QB N~fwffl ' h e insults your Majest,y('s feet).' Proper names are occasionallp used in tho same way ;-e. g. T ~ ~ Q ~ T T T T $ T : 'thus (.a) s) t h e 1.01;ered teacher S'amkara.' 6. T h e I. pers. pl. is sometimes wed by the speaker referring to himself (like our editorial 'we ') iustead of the singular 0 1 . dual (cp. 193, 2) ;-0.6. ~ w f i f - 6 i f ~ ~ ~ : ' x e (=I) too ask something' ; f$i *: *37-dq ' xhat shall 1,-e (= ~ o u and 1) do now? ' c. The names of countries are plural, being really the names of the peopleu(like'Sweden' inEnglish a~~d'Sachsen'inC;ormar~) :- r .g. fi@~ ' i n Vidal.bl,a' (Deror). I n the singular tho nauio of the people often del~otes the king of the country. VII 194 NUMBER d. Some n o ~ ~ n s are used in the plural only :-m: f. water ' ] (96, I ) ; 'llTW: m.' life ' ; sl+: f. ' the rains '='the rainy season ' ; m: m. 'wife.' Concord. 194. Therules of concord in case, person, gender, and number ale in genela1 the same as in other inflexional languages, but the fo]lowing bpecial points may be noted :- I. The nominative with- may take the place of a predicatile ~ C C . governed by verbs of calling, considering, knowing, &c. ;- 0.g. 'ilmq f j h& 'know me to be a Blahrnin' (instead of mql4 ST f a ) . a. When a dual or plural verb refers to two or more subjects the first person is preferred to the second or tbild, and the second person to the third ;-e. g. ~192 7 3 m V : 'you and I go.' 3. a. A d ~ a l or plural adjective agleeing with nlasc. and fen). substantives is put in the masc., but when neuters are associated with masculines and feminine<, in the neuter (sometimes singular) ;-e. g. m W W W P T ~ fl4-m ~T&+JTTT ' the chase, dice (akszb), and drinking are reprehensible in kings' ; wftam mi? .g=m ah: w w m@+ a h i ~ g y q fl 3% 'Gfiw ' a bird with clipped wings, a withered t ~ e e , . a dried-up pond, a toothless serpent and a poor mail are of equal account (neut. sing.) in (the eyes of) the world.' b. Occasionally an attribnte or predicate takes the natural in- steadofthe grammatical gender ;-e. g . 3 i f- mu-: mT: 3TW: 'thinking (n~asc.) of thee the subjects (fern.) have been reduced to taking no food.' C. As in Greek and Latin, a demonstrative pronoun agrees ~ i t h its predicate in gender;--e.g. 4 Sq: ' th is (masc,) is the best counsel' (masc.). A participle used in place of a finite verb, which should agree 182 CONCORD VII 195 with the subject, may be attracted in gender by a substantive predicate if in close-proximity with it ;-e. g. 3 3 fiTTi m- thou (masc.) hast become (neut.) my friend' (neut.). 4. A singular collective nonnis necessarily followed by a singular verb. Two singular subjects require a predicate i n the dual, three or more require it in the plural. Occasionally, however, the pre- dicate agrees in number with the nearest subject, being mentally supplied with the rest ;--e.g. wm* mfftT?; K9 f i q ~ f i *y'Ij.ect of tlansitire verbs, the accusative is employed to expless- I. the goal with v e ~ b s of motion;-e.g. W fl@m m?f ' h e went to Vldarbha ' a. verbs of going, like -and W, ale very commonly joined with an abs t~ac t substantive whele e i t h e ~ the cor~espond~ng adjective with ' to become,' or merely an intranfiitive verb woultl be used in Eng11sll;-e.g. fl q?f$ ~ T R ' h e becomes famous' (lit. ' goes to fame '); P* - 'he dies ' (lit. ' goes to death '). z. duat ion of time and e\tenbion of space ,-e. g. ~ ~ f l & & ? l ' he learnh for a month ' ; ' he goes (the dibtanca of) a Yojana' (nine miles). 3. the object of desiderative adjectives in TJ (cp. 169) and of some compound adjectives beginning with prepositions; - e . g. VII 198 ACCUSATIVE 1 8 ~ fi$& ~W 'KnTq ' I am desirous of crossing the ocean ' ; . vd sqSm: 'devoted to Damayanti.' 4. the cognate object of intransitive verbs i n the case of sab- stantires and the analogous adverbial sense in the case of adjectives ;-e.g. ilim q % ~ =dg 'may he rain (i. e. grant) all desires ' ; a ' let us go quickly ' (originally, ' go a quick gait '). Double Accusative. 198. Two accusatives are governed by- I. verbs of calling, considering, knowing, making, appointing, choosing ;-e. g. 5ViT@l ~j T@f? l~q ' I know thee (to be) the chief per~on.' 2. verbs of speaking (T, y, T), asking (q), begging (m, m*), instructing (v-TT~), fining (w). winning (fJI), milking (%);-e.g. mfi mq m q I dj+6* '- -, ' t he bird addressed a speech to Nala' ; P* 9- fm 'he should ask triie evidence from the twice-born'; Tf* 'be asks Rali for the earth ' ; ' ' m' what she comm'ands me' ; mm ' he should fine them a thousand (panas)'; q m ' h a v i n g won the kingdom from Nala ' ; 35s- ' they milked (i. e. extracted) gems fiom the earth.' a. 'tell,' 'make known,' and w-f- 'enjoin,' never take the accusative of the person addressed, but the datise __--_ _ .-re* (or gen.). 3. verbs of bringing, conveying, leading, dispatching;- e.g. ' Q T I T ~ ~ ~ ' h e brings the goat to thevillage' ; v%J~ 'having sent SakuntalTi away to her husband1@ honse.' I 86 ACCUSATIVE VII 199 4. causative verbs ;--e. g. mft 'he causes Riima to learn the Veda'; ifstress is laidon the agent (the direct acc.), it may be put in the instrumental : e: m?f6 he should cause her to be devoured by dogs.' a. When the causative meaning has faded, the dat. or gen. of the person is used instead efthe acc.; this is generally the case with FSfq ' showy (' C ~ I I F ~ to see '), and ' tell' ('cause to hear'), and always with 'make knwn, ' 'tell' ('cause to know '). b. ' In the passive construction the direct acc. (the person or agent) becomes the noni., the indirect acc. (the object or thing) remains ;-e. g. ' R- ama is caused to learn the Veda ' ; m: -% ' dogs are caused to devour her ' ; 9- qgu~q' Bali is asked for the eal th.' & sQ.*ea Instrumental. %'3% . 199. The fundamental notion of the inrtramental, which may ~dacri- be rendered by 'by ' or 'with,' expresses the agent, the instr- . ,,.\ , ment (means), or concomitant by or with which an action is ' - SCJi. performed ;-e. g. 2mF( ' i t was said by him '=' he said ' ; B '?T ,&J WV qrmff: 'he m a s killed with s sword'; mq ""'-"3*' &ll"W.8$ flm s there is no one happier (201.2 a ) v./^ in this world than he who bas converse with a friend.' I. The following are modifications of the instrumental sense expressing- 8. the reason : ' by,' 'through,' ' by reason of,' 'because of,' 'on account of' ;-e. g. m b - 'through your favour ' ; 8m- PT- 'I punisdyou for that fault'; mm 'by the thought of a tiger '=' because he thought it was a tiger ' (cp. p. 172,5); 'under the delusion of (the exister~ce of) pleasure.' VII 199 INSTRUMENTAL 187 b. accordance : ' by,' ' in conformity with ' ;-e. g . m m ' by nature'; 'by birth'; B ' he goes by (acts in accordance with) my opinion.' c. the price : ('with,' 'by means of'=) 'for,' 'at the price of' ;- e. g. qm gWiiiq 'a book sold for a hundred rupees ' ; WM gm 'a man should always save hin~self even at the cost of his wife or of his wealth.' d. time within which anything is done : ('by the lapse of'=) ' in ' ;-e. g. m m @ 'grammar is learnt in twelve years.' e. the way, vehicle or part of the body by which motion is effected;+. g. d 5 1 m: m: ' in what direc- tion (lit. ' hp what road') have the crows disappeared? ' BTfm qf?I 'he goes on horseback ' (lit. ' by means of a horbe ') ; B m m ' he carried (uviiha) the dog on his shoulder.' 1. ' in respect of' : with words implying superiority, in- feriority or defectiveness ;-e. g. - - 3'~: ' inferior to these two (abl.) in valour '; -9 m ? ' 0 fortunate man, you excel your ancestors in that (devotion)' ; m: 'blind of an eye.' g. ' of,' with' : with words meaning need or use, d: , &WP7.(used interrogatively or with anegative), or f q ' w h a t !' (with or without i2i 'doS) ;-e. g. q3 3 -4: 'what is the use of life to me' (gen.) ; 'your , Majesty's feet have no need oY servants ' ; % ?Tm 'what is to be done with that cow? ' fa 51 m'T 'what have me (to do) with this ? ' Similar is the use of mi done with '= 'away with' and 'enough of' (cf. 180) : 'away with ri singy=' pray do not rise.' 188 INSTRUMENTAL 1-11 199 b. ' with,' ' at ' : with verbs of rejoicing, laughing, being pleased, satisfied, astonished, ashamed, disgusted ;-e. g. m: mft ' a low person ia satisfied even with verylittle' ; W$W ?h 'he laughed at it.' I 'of,' 'by ': with verbr of boasting or swearing;--e. g. m- m l i l T fl e 'I swear by Bharata and myself.' 1. the object (victim) with m.' sacrifice ' ;-e. g. 9- 'he sacrifices ct brill to Rudra.' Here we have the real irrst. sense surviving from the time when -.meant 'worship ' a god (acc.) with (inst.). a. The concomitant or sociative sense is generally supple- mented by the prepositional adverbs flF, mqq, ~ l * and 'with,' nhich are used (like 'with ' in English) even when separation or antagonism is implied;-e. g. f i ~ 8$ fim W: ' the father went with his son ' ; fmfm: 'dis- agreement with a friend ' ; 73 % R-dFf fl* 'ha engaged in a fight with him.' This sense is also applied- a. to express the accompanying circumstances or the manner in which an action is performed ;--e. g. 77 i@ffl? q-: 'that pair lives in gleat affection' ; m71T @f9 'with great pleasure.' b. with the passive of verbs which have the sense of accompany- ing, joining, endowing, possessing, and the opposite;--e.g. FIVT flfgil: 'accompanied by yon;' V% T 'posees6ed or deetitute of wealth ' ; m f $ ~ f-: ' bereft of life.' c. with adjectives expressive of identity, equality, or likeness : W, WTT?I, m, ;--e. g. '@i~ K4: ' equal 0, to Indra'; -7!T$q: 'like him'; 9% p: 'he is not even equal to the dust of my feet.' The genitive is also uaed with these adjectives (cp. 102, ~ d ) . - VII 200 DATIVE 189 Dative. 200. The dative case evpresses either the indirect object, a perfion, or the purpose of an action. A. The dative of the indirect object is uaed- 1. \rlth transitive verbs, with or ~ i t b o u t a d ~ r e c t object :- . a. of giving (q, B ~ Q ) , telliilg (w., m, WP, WWI, mg), promising (*o 01 W - 2 , ~fi-m), shoaing (dq); -e.g. f$TVJ rli mfi ' h e gives a cow to the Brahmin' ; q i q ~ ~ ~ f i T 3 'I tell you the truth.' b. of sending, casting ;-e.g. *'il ~i i f -3 fm~: ' a messenger vas sent 1)y Rhoja to Raghu'; ~ B ~ ~ w ~ ~ T T P ' they cast (47) d a ~ t s a t %ma.' z. a i t h intransitive verbs meaning to please (q), desire (m, w), h augry a i t h (v, gq, ~y), injule (3):- e g. my ' i t pleases me ' ; T VW'Q F!J@ ' I do not long for the liingdom ' ; f*mq ' he is angl y with his hervant.' (3Y and $F n h e r ~ compoundeci a i t h plepositlons govern the acc.) 3. with word? of salutation;-0.g. ~ T ! ' T P W: 'salutation to GapeSa'; $wR 'health to thee'; m9 'hail to&ma'; W* 'nelcome to her Majesty.' B. --- The datlve of purpose expresses the end for vllich an action i, done, a11c1 1s very often equ i~a len t to an ~nf in i t i ie ;-e. g. ~2 --- - qfi ~ 3 % ' h e worships IIari for (= to obtaln) oal\atlon7; ' he goeh fol ( = t o olltain) frult ' ; T ~ T T * ?f?f?nq-r~~'tqqqm : mqq ' F ~ ~ ~ IIonoul (ha31 full autholity for the instruction of (= to instluct) rnj sons i n the priuciples of iliorality'; mq m: ' h e started for a fight' (=' to fight ') ; w@m ' au revoir.' - I '90 DATIVE VII ZOI This dative is specially taken by verbs meaning- I. ' he fit for,' ' tend or conduce to' (w, *-9~ ,9-@;-e . g. Y- ' piety condoces to knowledge.' a. V q a n d T a r e used in the same way, but are often omitted;- e. g. - * ' the combination even of the weak leads to safety' ; V: mc your weapon (serves) for the protection of (= to protect) the distressed.' a. ' be able,' ' begin,' ' strive,' 'resolve,' ' order,' 'appoint ';- e. g. $iP7 -m 'this story was able to win over (8kar~a;Ziya) the warrior'; & 'he began to (take) an oath' ; 'I will try to find her '; * ~ T V i9.pfa?q 'he has resolved on abandoning , his life ' ; f l f r l f u r m 'having charged (8-diiya) his daughter with the reception of the guests'; Pd m- e-fl: 'he was appointed by the gods '' a for the destruction of (=to destroy) Rlvaga.' a. The adverb aFTq 'sufficient' is used in the sense of ' be able to cope with,' ' be a match for I;-. g. ' IIari (is) a match for the demons.' Ablative. 201. The ablative primarily expresses the starting-point or source from which anything proceeds. I t thus answers to the question ' whence ? ' and may in general be tlanslated by ' from.' E. g. 'I wish to depart from this forest ' ; 'ruin results from sin ' (p5pSd); - 8: ' he did not swerve from his purpose ' (nirfcayiid) ; FJm ' he heard of the death of his son from his relations ' ; 're- leasing her from her bonds ' ; ftrCS m.hm 'desist from this act ' ; ' protect me from hell.' VII zor ABLATIVE 191 8. The source of apprehension is put in the ablative with verbs of fearing (*, B'f$=f_ud-vij) ;--e. g. W T F mfi 'you are afraid of the hunter ' ; 1T6njf f%&@f?l 'a Brahmin should always shrink from marks of honour.' b. Verbs expressing separation ' from ' naturally take the abla- tive;--e.g.WWI 'partedfrom you'; KT 'and she is deprived of her husband's place' (such words also take the instr.: cp. 199, 2 b) . Allied to this use is that of 'to cheat of' (= so as to separate from) ; - e. g. @WITIT, ' to cheat a Brahmin of his he-goat.' c. As the abl. expresses the terminus a quo, i t is employed with all words meaning 'far,' or designating the cardinal points ;- e. g. VTm 'far from the village ' ; mn @ fm: 'the mountain (is) to the east of the village.' d. Similarly the abl. also expresses the time after which anything takes place ;-. g. ?@'i& 'seen after a long time ' ; 'after a week.' The abl. also expresses the following senses connected with its original meaning :- I. the cause, reaeon, or motive = ' on account of,' ' be- ! - cause of,' ' through,' 'from' ;-. g. ?$- - 'he eats the flesh through greed.' This use of the abl. is especially common, in commentaries, with abstract nouns in tva ;-e. g. - t/%&m w7( 'the mountain is fiery because of its .% ' smokiness.' (The instr. is also employed in this sense: 199, I u.) ie*'\: 2. comparison :- -3: 7 a. with comparatives (='than') or words with a comparative meaning;-. g. m m ? m : ' R ~ m a is morelearned 'I"" ' '2b than Govinda'; m m 'knowledgeiesuperior &fi+ ' w ~'&&b@ m% nWR.'sovereignty befits a man who is en- dowed a i t h n orldly R isdom, liberality, and heroism.' The loc. a ' " is sometimes used with verbs mhich do not in themselves imply , an aim, to express the object gained as the result of an action;- e. g. T* w f ' he kills the panther for the sake of (obtaining) his akin.' d. Noilns expressive of desire, devotion, regald, friendship, confidence, compassion, contempt, neglect, ale often connected with the loc. (as is also the gen.) of the object to which those sentiments are directed ;-e.g. sT WJ w m T l W T m : A[ ( ' ( ; c 'my love is, indeed, not tovards S'akuntalSi'; 8 'FL 'i4v"3 m a : ' I hare no fsitb in you'; V- 43-7: 'e d: 'neglect of duties, hoiveier small, shi l~~ld not be indiilged in.' e. The loc. is similaily used with adjectives or past participles +r@- meaning 'fond of,' ' de\oted to,' 'intent on,' and their opposites ;- e. g. srrd: %* -@ Y T : 'wonlen (a1e)'intent on theil own pleasure only.' " f i t Z \ d * t Locative and Genitive Absolute. 205. I. The locative is the usual absolute case in Sanskrit, and has much the same general application as the Greek genitive VXI 205 LOCATIVE ABSOLUTE I99 ' and the Lat. ablative absolnte ;-e. g. 'as the days ,vent by ' ; a m: ' the cowrs having been milked, he departed'; W$ irfiT 'she gives ear when I speak.' a. The predicate of the absolnte loc. is practically always a the only exception t ~ e i ~ l g that the part. Wf, 'being,' is frequently omitted;-e. g. 'iiiPi ~ ? r i ifm~ 'ciifP 'how (can there be any) interference with the good in the performance of their duties, when you (are) their protector? ' b, The part. W?f 'being3 (or its equivalents and m) is often pleonastically added to auother absolute part. ;-e. g. * ~ S W B- 'at sunrise, when the owls had become blind.' c. The su1)ject is of course always omitted when a past pass. part. is used impersonally; it is also omitted %,hen the part, is ac- companied by indeclinable wolds lrke QWl,, m, m, 'ffil;- e. g. "when consent had been given by him ' ; a 'this being the case' (lit. ' it having gone t h u ~ '); Bfir or -8 *this being done.' d. The particle W and the noun W F l (as latter member of a compound) may be used after an absolute participle to expre,s ' no sooner-than,' 'scalcely-when' ;-e. g. YlWTTT-8 TJI- ;9T9'scarceIy had it dawned, when '; Xf@?SfTq ?n~m ' no sooner had his Honour entered, than.' 2. The gen. absolute is nluch less common than the loc. and more limited in its application. It is restricted to contem- poraneous actions, the subject being a peison and the predicate a present pa~ticiple in form or sense. Its meaning may, be ren- dered by 'while,' 'as,' or ' though7 ;--e. g. ~3 3 ' naudering about, though 1 was looking on ' ; & Tmq -3 fv: f ~ ; 'while he was speaking thus, the hunter 200 PARTICIPLES VII 206 remained concealed ' ; @?l f-m ?n m ~ g : m: 'n,hile he was thus reflecting women came there to fetch water.' Participles. 206. Participles are constantly used in Sanskrit to qualify the main action, supplying the place of subordinate clauses. They may, as in Latin and Greek, express a relative, temporal, cau~al, concessive, or hypothetical sense. A final sense is also expressed by the future participle. All these meanings are inherent in the participle, without the aid of particles, except that is usually added when the Bensg is concessive. E. g. m: *Tfw m q ' the jackal, being filled with anger, said to him'; f e f l m a 7 wfi 'though you have been frequently dissuaded by me, you do not listen to me'; WR(& fe -1: 'if you do not tell, though knowing it, your head will be shattered to pieces '; 7lTwm a* 'he ran again at Bhima in order to strike him.' a. Bahuvrihi compounds are very frequently employed in a par- ticipial sense, the part. 'ilq being omitted;-e.g.W qf- m q ' then being anxious he reflected.' 207. Present Participle. This participle(as well as a past with a present sense) is used with *@I or HBf;l 'is,' 'sits,' fm 'stands,' 'goes on,' to express continuous action, like the English 'is doing1;-e. g. m@ 4 P f v fBi?t~ gff m: 'this is the very forest in which we formerly dwelt for a long time'; m d 'he keeps eating'; Bf WmT 'she is being carefully guarded'; -6'fi ElZ: 'this pot is filled with porridge.' u VII 20s PARTICIPLES 201 a. The negative of verbs meaning 'to cease' is similarly construed with a present participle;--e. g. f ~ 3 q- qw- mw ' the lion did not cease (=kept) slaying the animals.' b. Verbs expressing an emotion such as 'to be ashamed,' ' to may be accompanied by a pres. part. indicating the cause of the emotion;-e.g. f* 31 Q+ 5Jm: 'are you not ashamed of speaking thus ? ' c. A predicative present (or past) part. accompanies the acc., or the nom. in the passive construction, with verbs of seeing, hearing, knowing, thinking, wishing (cp. 198, I) ;-e. g. ~fq+ 9 E @ h 'no one saw me entering'; U m?fl am m d v'tslie m V ' the king one day heard some - one repeating .a couple of s'lokas' ; mTq fael q& V ~ W ~ T : qmh: 'many daughters of royal aages are recorded to have been wedded according to the marriage of the Gandharvas.' 208. Past Participles. Thepassive part. in 71 and its active form (161 ; 89, n.3) in W. (but hardly ever the perf. act. part. in w: 89) are very frequently used as finite verbs (the copula being omitted) ;-e. g. 'this was said by him ' ; U T m q 'he said this.' a. The passive of intransitiveverbs is used impersonally; other- wise its past participle has an active sense;-e.g. Tim7 fe < -'I stood there for a long time'; m: 'he went to the Ganges'; U * g: 'he died on the way.' \ b. Some past participles in 3 have both s passive and a transi- tive active sense ;--e. g. ' obtained' and ' having reached' ; m~ 'entered (by) ' and 'having entered ' ; 371 'imbibed' and 'having drunk ' ; 'forgotten ' and ' having forgotteu ' ; 202 PARTICIPLES l-I1 209 f- 'divided' and 'having divided' ; begotten ' and 'having borne ' (f.) ; 3-l@Z ' ridden,' &c., and 'riding,' &c. C. The past participles in 7 never seem to occur with a tiansi- tive active meaning. --. 209. Future Participles Passive. These (162) express L \ T ' ' necessity, obligation, fitness, probability. The construction is the same as with the past pass. part.;-e.g. mt r - 'I must needs go to another country'; iil 8 ~ 5 1 must not (= do not) kill me, 0 king' ; ?fF@vfP w: &: 'then he too will surely make a noise.' a. Occasionally the fut. pass. part. has a purely future sense ;- e. g. gV& q m gmf~ WFVWt,'I too shaIl go with ease by the strength of your wings.' b. Y- and HT-09q (from a' be ') are used impersonally to express necessity or high probability. The adjective or sub- , stantire of the predicate aglees a i t h the subject iu the instr.;- e. g. ?rm T@f@Wl H f k i t q 'she must be '( = is most probably) near'; VW YTlm *T wm Y@- ' the strength of that animal must be very great.' 210. The Indeclinable Participle (Gerund) nearly aln aya expresses that an action is completed before another begins - jra~ely that it is ~imult~tneous). Referring to the grammatical or the virtual subject of the main action, it generally agrees nith the nom., or, in the passive construction, with the instr., but occasionally with other cases also;-e.g.d TT: ' hav~ng boned donn to him, he departed' ; 8flqT?j ?f*qft mT: vfym~: 'then he thro\ring himself upon him lost his life ' (*%XI agrees 15 ith 87) ;W eq mfli 'his love increased as hoon as he had seen the sweetly smiling maiden' (m agrees with m). a. I t may frequently be translated by ' in ' or ' by ' with a verbal VIT 2x1 PARTICIPLES 203 . noun ;-e. g. d $FI1' f$ ' what would you gain hy killing a poor man like me?' This use represents the original sense of the form as an old instrumental of a verbal noun. b. Having the full value of inflected participles, i t may express the various logical relations of the latter, and may even be accompanied, like them, by e, m, to express continuous action;-e. g. -7- ~ 4 3 'he is the fole- most of all the townsmen.' c. A number of gerunds are equivalent in sense to preposi- tions (1'79). d. The original instr. nature of the gerund is preserved in its 1 employment with fiiq or 9*q or vi th a general subject ex- pressed by the impersonal passive construction ; -e. g. $% Mfm ' what (gain accrues) t~ you by concealing ? ' 3 q i TRT 'have done nith going to the forest'; PJ.q Pfq W?@' ' i f ane goes to heaven by killing animals.' Infinitive. 211. This frequent form expresses the aim of an action and may in general be used wherever the dative of purpose is employed (zoo B). It differsflorn the dative of anoldinary velbalnoun solely in govelning its object in the acc. instead of the gen.;-e.g. 'he stllves to conquer him '=- -.jmm 'he strives for the conqueling of him.' I t p~eserves its original acc. sense inasmuch as it is used as the direct object of verbs (e.g.-@ 'he obtains a bathe'), and cannot be employed a8 the sub- ject of a sentence. Verbal nouns usually supply its place as the subject;-e.g. @ 9 3 ~lf?VJp: 'giving (=to give) is better than receiving' (=to receive). The constiuction of the acc, with the infinitive is unknonn to Sanskrit, its place being supplied, with velhs of saying, &c., hy oratio recta nith (r80), or otherwise by fhe use of a predicative acc. (198, I and 207 c). 204 INFINITIVE VII 211 The infinitive may be used with subbtantives (e. g. ' time,' ' oppo~tunity '), adjectives (' fit,' ' capable '), as well as verbs (e. g. ' be able,' ' wish,' ' begin ') ;-e. g. 'il* i;iiTq> fi~~lm 'this is not the time to delay ' ; T w * s ' ~ ~ -T?i IWiTqRw 'this is an opportunity to show yourself'; %@?lTlfi ~ l ~ l f i 3f-4 qii: mVf: 'who (is) able to escape from what is written on his forehead (by fate) ? ' T$ 3Itq WW: ' I have come (in order) to ask you '; -3 - 'he is able to tell ' ; KT 'she wished to malre.' a. The 2. and 3. sing. ind. of T$ 'deserve ' are used with an infinitive in the s e n ~ e of a polite imperatire=' please,' 'deign to' ;- e.g. 3Vim slwfi ' d l 1 your Honour please to hear me? ' b. The infinitive, after dropping its final q, may he formed into a Bahurrihi conipound (r8J nith 'desire,' or 'mind,' in the sense of nishing or having a mind to do what the verb expresses;--e. g. =WIT: 'desirous of seeing'; f%~ v 5 1 T Wfm ' what do yon intend to say ?' c. There being no passive form of the infinitive in Sanskrit, verbs governing the infin. are put i n the passive in order to give it a passive meaning;-e:g. qa ?il 'it is not fit to be doue': ITq afi -3 q e ' t h e y can be taught morality by me'; 8~ -9: i;iiTf WW: 'a hut (mas) begun to be erected by him.' d. The fut. part. pass. qw s'ak-ya may either agree with the subject or be put in the neat. sing.;-e.g. 9 m~$f (~?BT:) KITtTTw 'those (mischiefs) cannot be reltaired ' ; 'FIT 51 33f~3 S9TT 'she cannot be ignored (lit. 'she is not a po.sible thing to Ignore') \shen angry.' 9 'fitting' and ;?lTW 'slut- able' may be construed in the same wag i-e. g. $4 WmT Km 936a Y m : ' she should rightly he released by ine from you.' VII 213 TENSES T E N S E S A N D MOODS. Present. 212. The use of this tense is much the same as in English. Bnt the following differences should be noted :- I. I n narration the historical present is more commonly used than i n English, especially to express the durative sense (which the Sanskrit imperfect lacks) ;-a. g. -9qfi: q+flq' Damauaka asked, " How was i t ? " ' f ? * fa ~ f i f a 'Hiravyaka, having taken his food, used to sleep in his hole.' a. WT 'formerly,' is sometimes added to this present ;-e.g. qf@@~ 9 ve &q ' I formerly used tolive in a certain tree.' The particle W (which in the older language frequently accompanied m, and thus acquired its meaning when alone) is much more frequently used thus ; - e. g. slif@fq V'f@3l4 afk~;l* W sli%l%G? mf?I w ' in a certain place a wearer named Somilaka used to live.' b. The present is used to express the immediate past ;-e. g. WJT, w ' l f 3 l 'here I come,' i. e. 'I have just come.' 2. The present also expresses the near future, 'soon' and ' just ' (180) being sometimes added;-e.g. ?@ -'then leaving the bow, I am off'; 35 q m 3wTffl 'therefore I will just send Satrughna.' a. With interrogatives it implies a donbt as to future action;- e. g. f% * 'what shall I do ? ' 12. I t may express anexhortation to perform anaction at once ;- e. g. ?I@ Jf*q~9: 'then we (will) enter (= let us enter) the house.' Past Tenses. 213. All the three past tenses, imperfect, perfect, and aorist, besides the past participles in fl ta and ta-vat (and the historical pre~eat), are used promiscuously to express the historical 206 PAST TENSES-FUTURE T1I 214 or remote past, applying equally to facts which happened only once, or were repeated or continuous. a. The perfect is properly restricted to the statement of facts of the remote past, not coming within the experience of the speaker. The I. and 2. sing. are therefore very rare. b. Theimper fec t , in addition to describing the historical past, states past facts of which the speaker himself has been a witness. c. The aorist has (along with the participles in 7 and n q ) the special sense of the present perfect, being therefore appropriate in dialogues; - e. g. -sd 3 m~: my desire has obtained sweet fulfilment ' ; 7J?$ ilm qymf~ 'I have bestowed the sovereignty on you'; m f l w ' I have seen him.' d. The aorist (very rarely the imperfect) without the augment is used imperatively with Sf (215 e and 180). e. As there is no pluperfect in Sanskrit,its sense (bo be inferred from the context) has to be expressed by the other past tenses or the gernnd, or occasionally by a past participle with an auxiliary verb. Future. 214. The simple future is a general tense, referring to any future action, while the periphrastic future, which is much less . frequently employed, is restricted to the remote future. Both can therefore often be employed in describing the same action, and they frequently interchange. a. The future is sometimes used in an imperative sense, when accompanying an imperative;--e.g. F@ '~fm W7 mq we ~ 1 , m ' ~ o , my dear, but first hear my lequest.' I m p e r a t i v e . 215. Besides the ordinary injunctive or exhortative sense, this mood has some special uses. VII 21G IMPERATIVE-OPTATIVE 207 a. The first persons, which are survivals of old subjunctive forms, may be translated by 'will' or ' let ';-e. g. ~~~ 'his brother said, " Let us play" ' ; -$ w~f@ ' I will make.' b. The 3. sing. pass. is commonly used as a polite imperative j - ---- . - 1 instead of the z. pers. act.;-e.g. qq m' Sire, pray libten! ' ' (cp. Z I I a). C. The imperative may be used, instead of an optative or benedictive, to express a winh or blessing ;-e. g. f8i *V 'may you live long'; fm 8 mq: mu ' may your paths Ije auspicious ' =' Godspeed.' d. I t may expreEs possibility or doubt, especially with inter- rogatives;--e. g. fa4 - 9T mg - *: 'whether there be poison or not, the swelling of a serpent's hood is terrifying'; 3&g yfq 'who on earth would believe i t ? ' W W ' what should we do now ? ' e. The imperative with the prohibitive particle is somewhat rare, its place being commonly supplied by the uuaugmented aor. (213 d), by the opt. withq, or W a n d q r n w i t h t h e instr. (180). Optative or Potentid. 216. Besides its proper function this mood also expresses the various shades of meaning appropriate to the subjunctive (which eb3'+c-e?o. has become obsolete in Sanskrit). ' b . ~ ~ P 6 Wt I. In principal sentences it expresses the following mean- ings :- a. a wish (often with the particle wq added) ;-e. g. ~m T' ' ' ' '*-* k irssq '0 that I could see RBma here ! ' b. po~sibility or doubt ;A. g. Zim am @T ' per- haps he may be awakened by the lowing of the corns'; q@g: f - 6 f m 'kings can see through the eye of their 208 OPTATIVE-BENEDICTIVE VII 217 spies'; @ -3 m T ' the arrow shot by an archer may hit an individual, or may not hit him.' c. probability, being often equivalent to a future; -e. g. ?$ W fiCImcthis girl (is not likely to =) will not stay here.' d. exhortation or precept ;-e.g. HT: 'do you act thus ' ; V?i eq ' one should save wealth against calamity.' z . The optative is used in the following kinds of subordinate clauses :- a. in general relative clauses ;-e. g. M ? * g $T 7 333 qft: ' the king who (=every king who) does not neglect the time for the payment of salaries.' b. in final clauses ('in order thaty) ;-e. g. Wf?? 3 @ W *'~q'indicate to me the place where I am to live ' (=that I n~ay live there). c. in consequential clauses ('so that ') ;-e. g. B Y T ~ -'(only) such a burden should be borne as may not weigh a man down.' d. in the protauis (as well as the apodosis) of hypothetical clauses, with the sense of the Lat. present (possible condition) or imperfect (impossible condition) subjunctive (cp. 218);- e. g. m ? *q WXT 'if there were not a king, the state would founder like a ship.' 217. This rare form (I~o), a kind of aorist optative, is properly restricted to the expression of blessings, or, in the first person, of the speaker's wish;-. g. dtTflT.191 F: 'mayst thou give birth to a warrior'; m-'may I become successful.' The imperative is also employed in this sense (215 o). In a few rare VII 218 CONDITIONAL 209 cases the benedictive is indistinguishable in meaning from an imperative or an ordinary optative ;-e. g. 'do - ye proclaim this sl~eecl~'; f$ - l W T w ~ T C \ ~ 'for I do not perceive what should drive away my sorrow.' Conditional. 218. The conditional, as its form (an indicative past of the future) well indicates, is properly used to express a past condition, the unreality of which is implied, and is equivalent to the pluperfect (conditional) subjunctive in Latin or English, or the aorist indicative, used conditionally, in Greek. I t is employed in both protasis and apodosis ;-e. g. 7$$@vf~$ fl srrYfBQf?( 'if there had been abundant rain, there would have been no famine.' If a potential is used in the protasis, a con- ditional in the apodosis may acquire the sense of a hypothetical present (= imperf. subj~~nctive) ;-e. g. T m~ @ 3% ~ f m m 'f$m q-3: 'if the king did not inflict punishment, the strong would roast the weak like fish on a spit.' A P P E N D I X I 1 LIST OF VERBS The order of the parts of the verb, when all are given, is: Present (PR.), Tmperfect (DIP.), Imperative (IPV.), Optative (oP.); Perfect (PF.), Aorist (AO.) ; Future (m.) ; Passive (PS.), present, aorist, participle (PP.); Gerund (GD.) ; Infinitive (INF.) ; Causa- tive (cs.), aorist ; Desiderative (DS.) ; Intensive (INT.). The Roman numerals signify the conjugational class of the verb; P. indicates that the verb is conjugated i n the Parasmai- pada ouly, A. that i t is conjugated i n the Atmanepada only. aiir, 'bend,' I , P. m? II PS. I PP. I cs wf% II qq,ai i j , ' anoint,' VII, P. 6 3 I InIP. 1 TPV. I ou. =4@!nq I Ps. w8r I PP. =4m I cs. 3rrn I1 q? ad, 'eat,' 11, P. m, %%f ; 8-cf~ I IMP. Wq, wq:, wqy; I I. v ~ T R , ak, 83; qv- I OP. WTq II FT. l PS. I pr. P N (m n. 'food ') I GD. 1 INF. mUy I Cs. W- 11 an, 'l,reathe,' 11, 1'. mfi I DIP. W?Tq, W*: or mq:, h q or =qmq 1 IPV. m, I OP. mqu cs. m II , ' ah, attain,' V, m, @3 I A. xDIP. WB, w:, I I P V . ~ , a p , -71 o p . w @ a II T'F. m, LIST OF VERBS 21 I a;, ' eat,' IX, P. q%ft I I P ~ . wR, 9m7, mij I ' OF. d t m q 11 PF. WT I AO. w $ I ~ I IT. ~ f - I m. q& I P P ~~7 I GD. I INF. cs. q W a I Ds. W$f33n II ' 3 4 q a s , ' b e , ' 1 1 , ~ . ~ , ~ ~ , q f ~ ; -:,8:,fl:; PI:, q, @% 1 IMP. -7 M:, W U ? ~ ; Ww, m y , W T q ; mfFI, W-3 %By I IPv. m, Qf%, q; W8, W, WTq; 7BT'FI fl , l OP. m, 'ftlT: W?( ; PITV, PITflq, WTTTS ; WW , WTiT, 3: II WW 3 aTfkpI, T B ; %RB, v:, q W J : ; qm, TITJ arg: II as, ' throv,' IT, P. mb II PF. WW, 99TfB~, 8 c . , like W ' b e ' I A O . W ~ I I T . T ~ Q Q ~ ~ ? ~ I P S . ~ ? ~ I A O . ~ I T R r I c s . m m l Bp, 'obtain,' V, P. -7 I IMP. I IPV. m- 'il~fq, m, W?fQ l o p . ~ I l PF. W4 - I ~ 0 . - 1 ~ W f a I ps. mw3 I w-8 l GD. wm, O W I -1 Cb. ~ P f t I DS. I1 q q ~ s , it: 11, A. I rarp. I ruv. ~ T Y I ~ ~ i f i T 6 OF. m.fit?l II PF. W e I IT. Wm I 13. I PP. 3 j c -7 I i ~ r e g . pres. part;. A. I INF. arfftijq I1 T i , 'go , ' I I , P.-,Qf@, T!f?i; v:; l I J I P . ~ ~ , ?:, m ; - ~ ; WTI IPV.'~J~M, m,q; m m ; T I O P . ~ ~ I I P F . + ~ ~ , *, wP;W;fg:l m . m ; ~ I P s . ~ ~ I ~ P . ~ ? ~ I SpT, O S ~ I ~ ~ ~ I I ~ a d ~ i ~ 1 , ' r e s d , ' I I , A . ~ I IJIP.*~; 3. a".*- my; 3. m a I IW. a*, &, P 2 LIST OF VERBS 213 y k y s , ' d ~ a m , ' I, P. &ft; 'plough,' VI, P. 11 PF. qd, d q , wii$ ; svfw I m . %- I m. a* I ag I w, OBB I INF. %m I CS. &I@ II qi kf, ' scatter,' VT, P. fqm II PF. Win I m . I PS.$-B I I G D . o ~ ~ ? I1 zq k!p, ' be able,' I, A. q i ~ % II PF. -3 i FT. I PP. I CS. q iwa I AO. a=ftgsq 11 5fiTi kram, 'stricle,' I, %TTI~$, ~ 8 % I1 PF. WliTW, B* I AO. Wli*~ I m > ~ f r ~ f ~ , 08 I PS. I TTT 1 m T , O%q I c s . %q8f?f 01' m88f?f 1 Ds. R%fil$ft I INT. 'ilEil- *fq, =lqe I1 ~3 kli , ' buy,' IS, *w@, *q?% (p. 102) II PF. f8-(ilim I m.%wfia, 0% I ps. %?a I *a I *m, o a q I 1 ~ ~ . % i j q 1 DS. fqm 11 q'jksan, 'kill,' VIII, ~ ? f t , VJ? I1 PP. T8 II fa k ~ i , ' destroy,' V, P. f~q?ft II ps. *8 I PP. f~ I cs. w'4R or - II fw kgip, 'throw,' VI, f~Vfa, 08 I rw. W@I, m? I LIST OF VERBS 213 y k y s , ' d ~ a m , ' I, P. &ft; 'plough,' VI, P. 11 PF. qd, d q , wii$ ; svfw I m . %- I m. a* I ag I w, OBB I INF. %m I CS. &I@ II qi kf, ' scatter,' VT, P. fqm II PF. Win I m . I PS.$-B I I G D . o ~ ~ ? I1 zq k!p, ' be able,' I, A. q i ~ % II PF. -3 i FT. I PP. I CS. q iwa I AO. a=ftgsq 11 5fiTi kram, 'stricle,' I, %TTI~$, ~ 8 % I1 PF. WliTW, B* I AO. Wli*~ I m > ~ f r ~ f ~ , 08 I PS. I TTT 1 m T , O%q I c s . %q8f?f 01' m88f?f 1 Ds. R%fil$ft I INT. 'ilEil- *fq, =lqe I1 ~3 kli , ' buy,' IS, *w@, *q?% (p. 102) II PF. f8-(ilim I m.%wfia, 0% I ps. %?a I *a I *m, o a q I 1 ~ ~ . % i j q 1 DS. fqm 11 q'jksan, 'kill,' VIII, ~ ? f t , VJ? I1 PP. T8 II fa k ~ i , ' destroy,' V, P. f~q?ft II ps. *8 I PP. f~ I cs. w'4R or - II fw kgip, 'throw,' VI, f~Vfa, 08 I rw. W@I, m? I LIST OF VERBS 215 ?F, amF, a@ I AO. q*, =$t~ I m. v-, 0 8 ; I PS. I 3~33 1 GD. T @ ~ T , O Z a I IXF. T- 1 cs. ~wfi, 03 t AO. wm$~ I Ds. fqm, 08 11 glai, 'droop,' I, P. 7mm II PP. m?i I -3 or 7wp;7f?l II g y g h u s , ' souncl,' 1,9fBf8, 03 II m. @ I I QD. I cs. *sa% Il RT ghrii, 'smell,' I , P. fm I1 PF. Tf$) I PS. d I BT?I I cs. arw7f?T Il W,C*~S, 'speak,' 11, &I. 83, e, q%! ; P L . = ~ , 'i13-3, ~ U P F . ~ ~ I F T . B ~ I G D . O W I ' ~ ~ ~ I C S . W ~ I I car, ' move,' I, P. II PF. TVi , -4 ; 3. PL. a: I m. I m. 848 I < ~ n I GD. TRW, o q $ I INB. , ' d f ? ~ I cs. FITI'Q~~ I AO. 3lq?877( H BW,cal, 'more,' I, P. 'ilm II PF. BTFT ; 3. PL. %: I IT. ma9f8 I PP. ~ f a 3 1 Waij~ I a. W V ~ or W W ~ I DS. fqem 11 fB ci, 'collect,' V, fq*, fS@ II PF. R w ~ , f e I m. %rgfa, 03; 3m I p s . d t u 8 I f'da I GD. Rm, of- I INF. qm 1 CS. ~e I Ds. Rq?* 11 m , c i n t , 'think,' X, P. fBFRlm II PER. PF. fnmP3 I PS. I f8m I GD. f~(?lkTf~, ORW 11 cur,' steal,' X, P. ~3~ 1 PER. PF. *mm I AO. -71 ~.slFt+Bl =am 11 chid, ' cut,' VII , ; f$~f* II PF. fe<, M F I AO. m q q or ~ % m I .-R, 03 I PS. l l GD. -T, I m ~ . e q l CS. %??lfi II LIST OF VERBS 215 ?F, amF, a@ I AO. q*, =$t~ I m. v-, 0 8 ; I PS. I 3~33 1 GD. T @ ~ T , O Z a I IXF. T- 1 cs. ~wfi, 03 t AO. wm$~ I Ds. fqm, 08 11 glai, 'droop,' I, P. 7mm II PP. m?i I -3 or 7wp;7f?l II g y g h u s , ' souncl,' 1,9fBf8, 03 II m. @ I I QD. I cs. *sa% Il RT ghrii, 'smell,' I , P. fm I1 PF. Tf$) I PS. d I BT?I I cs. arw7f?T Il W,C*~S, 'speak,' 11, &I. 83, e, q%! ; P L . = ~ , 'i13-3, ~ U P F . ~ ~ I F T . B ~ I G D . O W I ' ~ ~ ~ I C S . W ~ I I car, ' move,' I, P. II PF. TVi , -4 ; 3. PL. a: I m. I m. 848 I < ~ n I GD. TRW, o q $ I INB. , ' d f ? ~ I cs. FITI'Q~~ I AO. 3lq?877( H BW,cal, 'more,' I, P. 'ilm II PF. BTFT ; 3. PL. %: I IT. ma9f8 I PP. ~ f a 3 1 Waij~ I a. W V ~ or W W ~ I DS. fqem 11 fB ci, 'collect,' V, fq*, fS@ II PF. R w ~ , f e I m. %rgfa, 03; 3m I p s . d t u 8 I f'da I GD. Rm, of- I INF. qm 1 CS. ~e I Ds. Rq?* 11 m , c i n t , 'think,' X, P. fBFRlm II PER. PF. fnmP3 I PS. I f8m I GD. f~(?lkTf~, ORW 11 cur,' steal,' X, P. ~3~ 1 PER. PF. *mm I AO. -71 ~.slFt+Bl =am 11 chid, ' cut,' VII , ; f$~f* II PF. fe<, M F I AO. m q q or ~ % m I .-R, 03 I PS. l l GD. -T, I m ~ . e q l CS. %??lfi II LIST OF VERBS 217 at( typ, ' be pleased,' IV, P. m?? II PF. 384 ; WB I PP. gfl 1 cs. 7rm I AO. q q q II t!, 'cross,' I, P. or VI, A. or fie II PF. ???ITT ; w: I AO. q & q o r d q I m. ~ f ~ f i ) 03 I pp. ?it$ I GD. ~ G T ) OH 1 INF. @q7 ??ilfig~) V ~ W 1 CS. mft, 03 I Ds. f* II mjr-tyaj, ' abandon,' I, m3Tf?f, 03 II PF. 7 1 q T 3 ) I AO. mmftql ~"r.miW?~, 08or M%afi, 03 I r s . m I m I GD. mm, O m - I cs. - I DS. 11 m t r a s , 'tremble,' I, P. or IV, P. A. or B-f?f, 08 II PF. ; ?ng: or 39: I m. B f ~ f ? f I PP. qq I CS. BTq- m II tvar, 'hasten,' I, A. 11 PF. 1 PP. MW 1 CS. i3rwfa II *dam:, 'bite,' I, P. qm II PF. qiq I m. qf~m I P9. i@$ 1 PP. 1 OD. m7 Ow 1 C.3. *ma 11 dah, 'burn,' I, P. qm II PF. SING. 2. 01. 7 wq I AO. -1% I m. ~ f t I Ps. qa8 I PP. vq 1 it'+hm, 0- I IN. I cs. I Ds. fq-f~ 11 7 az, give,' III, m, ~3 11 PF. e, I AO. ; q f 7 7 f , 3 . P L . 3 @ € v T ~ m . ~ , 0 3 ; ~ ? I T I ~ I W I OD. ;diqT, O w 1 CS. 1 0 s . fmq 11 f? ,div , ' $ay,' IV, P. II AO. eq??( I m. vd l PP. I INF. I CS. F a 11 f ~ d i i , ' point,' VI , em, 03 II PF. mq, 4f@ 1 AO. qmq I FT. m) 08 I PS. fm I pp. fw I GD. Q-W 1 INF. I CS. m8 I DS. @fm 11 LIST OF VERBS 217 at( typ, ' be pleased,' IV, P. m?? II PF. 384 ; WB I PP. gfl 1 cs. 7rm I AO. q q q II t!, 'cross,' I, P. or VI, A. or fie II PF. ???ITT ; w: I AO. q & q o r d q I m. ~ f ~ f i ) 03 I pp. ?it$ I GD. ~ G T ) OH 1 INF. @q7 ??ilfig~) V ~ W 1 CS. mft, 03 I Ds. f* II mjr-tyaj, ' abandon,' I, m3Tf?f, 03 II PF. 7 1 q T 3 ) I AO. mmftql ~"r.miW?~, 08or M%afi, 03 I r s . m I m I GD. mm, O m - I cs. - I DS. 11 m t r a s , 'tremble,' I, P. or IV, P. A. or B-f?f, 08 II PF. ; ?ng: or 39: I m. B f ~ f ? f I PP. qq I CS. BTq- m II tvar, 'hasten,' I, A. 11 PF. 1 PP. MW 1 CS. i3rwfa II *dam:, 'bite,' I, P. qm II PF. qiq I m. qf~m I P9. i@$ 1 PP. 1 OD. m7 Ow 1 C.3. *ma 11 dah, 'burn,' I, P. qm II PF. SING. 2. 01. 7 wq I AO. -1% I m. ~ f t I Ps. qa8 I PP. vq 1 it'+hm, 0- I IN. I cs. I Ds. fq-f~ 11 7 az, give,' III, m, ~3 11 PF. e, I AO. ; q f 7 7 f , 3 . P L . 3 @ € v T ~ m . ~ , 0 3 ; ~ ? I T I ~ I W I OD. ;diqT, O w 1 CS. 1 0 s . fmq 11 f? ,div , ' $ay,' IV, P. II AO. eq??( I m. vd l PP. I INF. I CS. F a 11 f ~ d i i , ' point,' VI , em, 03 II PF. mq, 4f@ 1 AO. qmq I FT. m) 08 I PS. fm I pp. fw I GD. Q-W 1 INF. I CS. m8 I DS. @fm 11 LIST OF VERBS 219 W T ~ ; aqva I I P V . ~ Y T ~ ~ , W , ~ Y T ~ ; m; WI A. q8, WFi, YTTq; qWmS ; $mTY 1 op. m, A. q133 11 q 3 , qP I A ~ . avq, afYir I m. wfi, 08 I PS. *a I A 0 qwrn 1 PP. f$?l 1 GD. O m 1 mm 1 CS. YTWfi I DS f ~ m II ~ y m d h % v , ' 1 un,' and ' vash,' T, ~ ~ f ? l , 03 II PF. V W I PS. V T F ~ ~ I Yfi7 ' running '; 3 7 'mashed ' I cs. YT- II W dhii, ' shalre,' V or IX, @frl, or ym'f??, fi 11 PI? $m 1 m. I PS. 1 Pp. I cs. I IST. @Y* ; 11 y dhr, ' bear,' (no p~esent) I1m, qW I i; lf=Wfi, '8 I @m31yn1ywr1~&1 cs W T ' ~ % , O ~ I AO.*YTTII w dhmL, ' blow,' I, P. Yqft II PF. I AO. I PS. 01. -8 I PP. WTT 1 GD. O m 1 CS. W Y ~ B 11 nad, 'hum,' I, P. m3 II PF. Wq, wqq ; 3%: 1 PP. 9m I cs. m a orvfi I INT. T* 11 qq nam, 'bend,' I, P. s f ~ f ? j I1 PF. TTPT ; 3 ~ : I AO. M- * iT, l * l~s. TR@ I Wl I W T , O W I m!JTol ';??fql .4 cs. 9~~ or ~ T W V ~ I AO. ~-.;sn"t-imq I DS 11 n d , ' perish,' IV, P. ~ f i II Pf 97Tq ; 33: I Ao. 7- I m. qfmfi or I PP. I CS. 9 T T J f i I ao. 7*qq II 9T nah, ' bind,' IV, 08 11 Ps. 9- 1 Pp. 95 1 GD. I Cs. 11 a n ? , 'lead,' I, m, 03 11 PF. f';)7qm (p. 113)1 AO. ~ 3 a 1 P1'.W; MI ~~.5it@15itq1 G D . ~ , o ~ % I ~ I cs. vrn I DS. ffifi, 08 I 1 N T . m 11 LIST OF VERBS 219 W T ~ ; aqva I I P V . ~ Y T ~ ~ , W , ~ Y T ~ ; m; WI A. q8, WFi, YTTq; qWmS ; $mTY 1 op. m, A. q133 11 q 3 , qP I A ~ . avq, afYir I m. -Ti, 08 I PS. *a I A 0 qwrn 1 PP. f$?l 1 GD. O m 1 mm 1 CS. YTWfi I DS f ~ m II ~ y m d h % v , ' 1 un,' and ' vash,' T, ~ ~ f ? l , 03 II PF. V W I PS. V T F ~ ~ I Yfi7 ' running '; 3 7 'mashed ' I cs. YT- II W dhii, ' shalre,' V or IX, @frl, or ym'f??, fi 11 PI? $m 1 m. I PS. 1 Pp. I cs. I IST. @Y* ; 11 y dhr, ' bear,' (no p~esent) I1m, qW I i; lf=Wfi, '8 I @m31yn1ywr1~&1 cs W T ' ~ % , O ~ I AO.*YTTII w dhmL, ' blow,' I, P. Yqft II PF. I AO. I PS. 01. -8 I PP. WTT 1 GD. O m 1 CS. W Y ~ B 11 nad, 'hum,' I, P. m3 II PF. Wq, wqq ; 3%: 1 PP. 9m I cs. m a orvfi I INT. T* 11 qq nam, 'bend,' I, P. s f ~ f ? j I1 PF. TTPT ; 3 ~ : I AO. M- * iT, l * l~s. TR@ I Wl I W T , O W I m!JTol ';??fql .4 cs. 9~~ or ~TWV~TI I AO. ~-.;sn"t-imq I DS 11 n d , ' perish,' IV, P. ~ f i II Pf 97Tq ; 33: I Ao. 7- I m. q f ~ f i or I PP. I CS. 9 T T J f i I ao. 7*qq II 9T nah, ' bind,' IV, 08 11 Ps. 9- 1 Pp. 95 1 GD. I Cs. 11 a n ? , 'lead,' I, m, 03 11 PF. f';)7qm (p. 113)1 AO. ~ 3 a 1 P1'.W; MI ~~.5it@15itq1 G D . ~ , o ~ % I ~ I cs. vrn I DS. ffifi, 08 I 1 N T . m 11 220 APPENDIX I nrt, ' dance,' IV, P. II PF. -ild ; m: I m. qf4- qfi I PS. I PP. I CS. 1 DS. R?lfim 1 INT. 'ifit* ; Mm 11 pac, ' cook,' I, v ~ R , 03II PF. WV, 8% I IT. I PS. T& I qqi AD. = PP. I WT I cs. q~sf?T I INT. II q p a t , 'fall,' I, P. t171% 11%. WIT71 ; hqg: I AO. BVTl?f I IT. \ sfaasfti I pP. sfin I t1Rm I ~fim, O q r n I cs. m- I DS. f w a II pad, ' go,' IV, A. WJ% I1 PF. ?@ I ~ s T f ? AO. ktm. I BT. I P P 1 O q V I q q I CS., ~r~m I Ds. fm I INT. 11 'drink,' I, P. fi* II PF. Vf?, rim or gWW ; pg: I no. I mf?f I m. g M I AO. BPT~V I PP. q??I I h T , O V T ~ I my I cs. mWa I ns. f-R I I N T . % M II ~f PI, 'protect,' II, P. V T ~ II AO. B ~ ' t ? f I INF. II R p u ? , 'thrive,' IV or IX, P. galfi or mf?l 11 PF. 3% 1 PS. qe I PP. !p I cs. m I1~ p i i , ' purify,' IX, me, f l W II PF. m, I ~ 9 . I PP. XqI OD. O P 1 CS. - 112 pf (XT pur), '611,' 111, P. f9Qf8; fm II PF. (m), I PS. @ / PP. ~8 01' ~4 1 OD. O$ I CS. h 3@J prach, 'ask,' VI, P. m? II PP. m; Q-: I AO. V W*T, m~ I FT. ~lmfti I PS. 3- I PP. 2~ I GD. m, I INF. q z q I DB. figf+*a II pi, 'please,' IX, JlMft, Sii* II -40. ~" f l - I PP. lh I cs. laqml I1 LIST OF VERBS 223 q5 mad, 'rejoice,' IV, P. - II AO. I PP. UT I cs. or ~m I1 man, 'think,' I V or VI I I , A. or ~9 II PF. I ~ 0 . m I W. &&@ 1 P S . ~ ) PP. Wl 1 G D . ~ , O m or 0- I INF. qm 1 CS. I DS. U* 11 q y m a n t h , ' shake,' I or IX ,P . (or m) or II PF. 1 W. 1 Ps. q* I PP. jlfm 1 GD. O m I '2s. w4wi II9 1 mi, ' measure,' 11, P. or 111, A . or fm 11 PF. or + IPS. I AO. TWI~ I P P . @ ~ I GD. m, f P 1 INF. 1 CS. mfl 1 DS. 11 3~ muc, 'loosen,' VI, m, 08 II P . m%, ?j@ I -40.7lgq, q 3 i I . r n f ? T , 0 8 I p s . ? p 3 I rn I m, I T 7 9 9 I cs. RW~, 0 8 I AO. -y?pm. l D9. m a or Ti?* II mnh, ' be bewildered,' I V , P. mf?i II PF. -3 m w o r m o r * ~ P P ~ O ~ F I C S . * $ ~ R I INT. q m 11 q my, 'die,' P. (no present) 11 PF. m, d; 1 m. rlfialR I PS. l PP. I GD. I INF. I C S . Ao. 1 0s. I WT. 11 y , m y j , 'wipe,' 11, P. Vlfi* ; v: ; I IMP. TUT$ ; YnpTq; B T p q l xpv. d m , *g, m$; pm; SjlT 1 OP. m?f, 11 PF. & ; q: I-AO. 01. or '-4 I m. WE& 1 PS. I PP. I GD. O T I INF. INT, LIST OF VERBS 223 q5 mad, 'rejoice,' IV, P. - II AO. I PP. UT I cs. or ~m I1 man, 'think,' I V or VI I I , A. or ~9 II PF. I ~ 0 . m I W. &&@ 1 P S . ~ ) PP. Wl 1 G D . ~ , O m or 0- I INF. qm 1 CS. I DS. U* 11 q y m a n t h , ' shake,' I or IX ,P . (or m) or II PF. 1 W. 1 Ps. q* I PP. jlfm 1 GD. O m I '2s. w4wi II9 1 mi, ' measure,' 11, P. or 111, A . or fm 11 PF. or + IPS. I AO. TWI~ I P P . @ ~ I GD. m, f P 1 INF. 1 CS. mfl 1 DS. 11 3~ muc, 'loosen,' VI, m, 08 II P . m%, ?j@ I -40.7lgq, q 3 i I . r n f ? T , 0 8 I p s . ? p 3 I rn I m, I T 7 9 9 I cs. RW~, 0 8 I AO. -y?pm. l D9. m a or Ti?* II mnh, ' be bewildered,' I V , P. mf?i II PF. -3 m w o r m o r * ~ P P ~ O ~ F I C S . * $ ~ R I INT. q m 11 q my, 'die,' P. (no present) 11 PF. m, d; 1 m. rlfialR I PS. l PP. I GD. I INF. I C S . Ao. 1 0s. I WT. 11 y , m y j , 'wipe,' 11, P. Vlfi* ; v: ; I IMP. TUT$ ; YnpTq; B T p q l xpv. d m , *g, m$; pm; SjlT 1 OP. m?f, 11 PF. & ; q: I-AO. 01. or '-4 I m. WE& 1 PS. I PP. I GD. O T I INF. INT, 224 APPENDIX I . mnH, mention,' I, P. Wfm II AO. FS. I pp. wil I / 3 mlai, 'fade,' I, P. m~ I1 PF. 1 AO. I PP. wq I CS. WV- or a*il II yaj, 'worship,' I, *, 08 II PF. m, I AO. ~ ~ & , W I ~ . ~ I ~ ~ . ~ I ~ ~ . W I G D . ~ I INF. 1 CS. wrn 1 DS. f m f a b Vq yam, ' stop,' I, P. II PF. qWW, PV;eT ; qv: I FJ!. mqm I Ps. qm I P P qfl I GD. qm, 1 INF. qqq or qFliJS I CS. ~ q f i or mffsf?i 11 m 'j'q 'go,' 11, P. I IMP. Or q: I IW. P T ~ I op. II PF. 993 I AO. WIT^?^ I ET. rnwm ; I PS. 1 I'P. I G.. -9 I IN.. P*I CS. I DS. fmaR II 3 yu, join,' 11, P. &t-a ; w f ~ I rB1p.~ k ; v< I IPV. P&j ; qq? 1 op . qmq 11 pp. qa II F, yuj, 'join,' VII , m, @ 11 PF. *=f, =% I A,. aqq7 q 3 i I m. qRm' I ps. m 1 9 I m, O g j g I ?iQiq1 c s . *m, 03 I AO. -31ii I Ds. ygTf3 11 v , r a k s , ' protect,' I, m, 03 1 PF. 1 AO. -I=. m; -rn I PS. W I P P . ~ W I GD. O W I INF. Tfm I CS. 11 m,ra i i j , 'tinge,' IV, P. Wfl I1 PS. T* I PP. T% I GD. "TJs I cs. T~ I1 rabh, ' grasp ' (w 8-rabh, ' begin '), I, A. ~e II PF. I ET. -8 I X'S. ~3 I AO. I 1 OD- O w I IN.. I cs. I Ds. f w R 11 U LIST OF VERBS 225 m ram, ' sport,' I, A. (P. only when transitive) I1 PF. I ro. I m. iq3 I INF. I PF. I GD. Tm, O T r Q I P9. I CS. rn 1 DS. W 8 II q - ~ q ,laj, .-. c shine,' I , Tnffl, 08' 11 mT;iT, I 11 q ru, ' cry,' 11, P. - ; m: ; wfsil ll PF. M ; w: I PP 1 INF. 1 '29. ~ ~ f i I AO. -< I INT. *-am m u TT rud, 'weep,' 11, P. f%$T ; ~ f ? i l 1 mp. m, m: or m:, or m*; Wv; TI I P V . f T q m , M'g ; m; q'ij I 0.. WIlqIl pF. qftq I AO. aqqq I m. I PS. WW I I l@xi=, I flew I *qsR I mm I*wW I1 B y r u d h , ' shut out,' VII, ~qf i , 8:: (p. 100) 11 PF. ~ h , q-@ I Ao. aqqq or W ~ T F C ~ ; ~ T S I m. I PS. ~ I W I T ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I T ~ ~ I W ~ I ~ ruh, 'grow,' I , P. *@71 11 PF. d$ 1 AO- wv Or -< 1 m. *f?f I PS. q@$ I PP. qz I G D . O B g I INF. y m I cs. or i h f a I DS. WTR II ~ \ 1 a b h , 'gasp, ' I, A. -8 11 PF. 33 I m. -8 I PS. WQW I PP. 1 GD. WT, O m 1 CS. 1 DS. f-8 h f$Q,likh, ' scratch,' VI, P. f ~ f i II PF. %$q I PS. f%- 1 PP. f w ~ I GD. f q & ~ , ' f ~ w 1 C8. 3-B 11 Tlii, 'cut,' IX, ~ w R , @i8' 11 PF. qF(m, qqi I PP. qq 11 vac, ' speak,' 11, P. qf31, m, @?ti ; $T:, $W:, m: ; m:, w, (m) I IMP. w q , aqq, mq ; v, m, m r t ; am, m, (w) I lw.~ f q , ~ m , ; 1 or . m v 1 PF. qm; - XT: I Q LIST OF VERBS 227 vid, 'find,' VI, fm7 03 II m-6, faf? I -40. m, afm I -, d I pa. f-3 ('there exists') I PP. fw or Wa I fm, oRp. I -m I cs. 3- I DS. f v f f I1 vii, ' enter,' VI, P. fm II PF. faaq I AO. T k ~ l rr.-l pa. m I a o . T W q I pp. m l o f a w l ~ l cs. I Ao. -I ns. II 9 v ~ , ' c o v e r , ' v , m, II IT. am^^, W d ; v; q; * I ~ . ~ I V ~ ~ I ~ ~ I R J F . E ~ ~ ~ O ~ * I cs. W y a 3 II 7 VF, ' choose,' IX, A. @ U m. * I no. I m- I PP. I INF. I CS. 11 v r t , 'exist,' I, A. (P. also in ao., m.) a I( PF. qg3 I AO. I FI.. w m Ol' I PP. I GD. I INF. uf* I CS. ahfn ti iFT_vrdh, ' increase,' I, A. (P. also in AO., rr.) dft II PF. 1 Ao. vq, I IT. I PP. 1 INF. 1 CS. -3 03 1 AO. ~ W M w - v y a d h , ' ~ierce,' IV, P. fm II PF. ; ftm: I PS. f-8 I PP. f~ 1 OD. fv~, ' f i ~ 1 cs. qm 11 WiI-vraj, 'go,' I, P. II PP. m, m~ 1-40. WT- 2 ~ I F T . ~ ~ M ? I I ~ ~ . ~ ~ I P P . N ~ I G D . ~ ~ T ~ ~ ~ R T , ~ ~ I INF. 1 C.9. 11 ~ v r a i c , 'cut,' VI, P. gqfii 11 m. I pp. 3- I GD. O T W 11 $q iarps, ' praise,' I, P. $- I! I AO. -~c t? f l X@Q- ~ ~ ~ ~ I P S . ~ ~ I W I ~ T , O ~ I ~ I C ~ . ~ * W I 'a a LIST OF VERBS 227 vid, 'find,' VI, fm7 03 II m-6, faf? I -40. m, afm I -, d I pa. f-3 ('there exists') I PP. fw or Wa I fm, oRp. I -m I cs. 3- I DS. f v f f I1 vii, ' enter,' VI, P. fm II PF. faaq I AO. T k ~ l rr.-l pa. m I a o . T W q I pp. m l o f a w l ~ l cs. I Ao. -I ns. II 9 v ~ , ' c o v e r , ' v , m, II IT. am^^, W d ; v; q; * I ~ . ~ I V ~ ~ I ~ ~ I R J F . E ~ ~ ~ O ~ * I cs. W y a 3 II 7 VF, ' choose,' IX, A. @ U m. * I no. I m- I PP. I INF. I CS. 11 v r t , 'exist,' I, A. (P. also in ao., m.) a I( PF. qg3 I AO. I FI.. w m Ol' I PP. I GD. I INF. uf* I CS. ahfn ti iFT_vrdh, ' increase,' I, A. (P. also in AO., rr.) dft II PF. 1 Ao. vq, I IT. I PP. 1 INF. 1 CS. -3 03 1 AO. ~ W M w - v y a d h , ' ~ierce,' IV, P. fm II PF. ; ftm: I PS. f-8 I PP. f~ 1 OD. fv~, ' f i ~ 1 cs. qm 11 WiI-vraj, 'go,' I, P. II PP. m, m~ 1-40. WT- 2 ~ I F T . ~ ~ M ? I I ~ ~ . ~ ~ I P P . N ~ I G D . ~ ~ T ~ ~ ~ R T , ~ ~ I INF. 1 C.9. 11 ~ v r a i c , 'cut,' VI, P. gqfii 11 m. I pp. 3- I GD. O T W 11 $q iarps, ' praise,' I, P. $- I! I AO. -~c t? f l X@Q- ~ ~ ~ ~ I P S . ~ ~ I W I ~ T , O ~ I ~ I C ~ . ~ * W I 'a a LIST OF VERBS 229 &u, 'hear,' V, P. ; m: ; m~ b -2 m , ~ ; . D U . , ~ . P L . W ; ~ : I A O . ~ I m . m ; ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ , o m I IXF. *I CS. ZRW'R I DS. (I U wrivas,'breathe,' 11, P. U PF. X!TRl t m. lafm I pp. Or 1 OD. O m I INF. 1 Cs. h m,saii j , 'adhere,' I, P. ~ $ 7 11 m. I Ao. 1 PS. & 1 PP. rn I GD. O 8 3 P I INF. I u ~ s a d , ' s i n k , ' I , P . ~ - I l P F . ~ ) ~ o r ~ ; - @: I AO. 1 FT. 1 PB. 1 PP. 1 GD. O 8 q 1 INF. I CS. 11 sah, ' bear,' I , A. II m. Wf@@ ; %h 1 ps. ~l$@ I pp. a 1 OD. I INF. I cs. 11 fm sic, ' sprinkle,' VI, fm, 03 U PF. @3%=T) f a 3 I no. a m , 0q I FT. m) 08 I ps. 1 pp. fin I GD. fm) 1 C8. m) 08 11 fffy sidh, ' repel,' I, P. II PF. h-r~ AO. %a* I FT. -8 and I PS. I f % f ~ I INF. 8~ 1 CS. P W ? II g sn, 'press out,' V, -, @ (P. 98) 11 PF. g.8m7 ?@I I IT. I Ps. @ I PP. 37 I GD. O w 1 CS. 11 ~ s i i , ' bar; 11, A. @ I DIP. I lm. $7 Fpa, I OP. 11 PF. a3 I I T . * + or MI ps. @ I I1 '& SF, ' g o , ' ~ , ~ . K i f ? u PF. m) BBPf; FI&il; q: I IT. I PP. w ( GD. O m 1 XNF. 1 CS. 11 '&jr.srj, ' emit,' VI, P. I/ PF. -4 I AO. PBMTI LIST OF VERBS 229 &u, 'hear,' V, P. ; m: ; m~ b -2 m , ~ ; . D U . , ~ . P L . W ; ~ : I A O . ~ I m . m ; ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ , o m I IXF. *I CS. ZRW'R I DS. (I U wrivas,'breathe,' 11, P. U PF. X!TRl t m. lafm I pp. Or 1 OD. O m I INF. 1 Cs. h m,saii j , 'adhere,' I, P. ~ $ 7 11 m. I Ao. 1 PS. & 1 PP. rn I GD. O 8 3 P I INF. I u ~ s a d , ' s i n k , ' I , P . ~ - I l P F . ~ ) ~ o r ~ ; - @: I AO. 1 FT. 1 PB. 1 PP. 1 GD. O 8 q 1 INF. I CS. 11 sah, ' bear,' I , A. II m. Wf@@ ; %h 1 ps. ~l$@ I pp. a 1 OD. I INF. I cs. 11 fm sic, ' sprinkle,' VI, fm, 03 U PF. @3%=T) f a 3 I no. a m , 0q I FT. m) 08 I ps. 1 pp. fin I GD. fm) 1 C8. m) 08 11 fffy sidh, ' repel,' I, P. II PF. h-r~ AO. %a* I FT. -8 and I PS. I f % f ~ I INF. 8~ 1 CS. P W ? II g sn, 'press out,' V, -, @ (P. 98) 11 PF. g.8m7 ?@I I IT. I Ps. @ I PP. 37 I GD. O w 1 CS. 11 ~ s i i , ' bar; 11, A. @ I DIP. I lm. $7 Fpa, I OP. 11 PF. a3 I I T . * + or MI ps. @ I I1 '& SF, ' g o , ' ~ , ~ . K i f ? u PF. m) BBPf; FI&il; q: I IT. I PP. w ( GD. O m 1 XNF. 1 CS. 11 '&jr.srj, ' emit,' VI, P. I/ PF. -4 I AO. PBMTI LIST OF VERBS 23 = q s v a j , ' embrace,' I , A. -3 ll I PP. Wli I wn q svap, ' sleep,' 11, P. II PF. 9-m ; -3: I no. qqluflq I *. wa3R I PS. qQl3 I no. rn I PP. gT;I I GD. I mF. I cs. I Ds. 9- mhan, 'k i l l , ' 11, P. 9f;iil ; q?l: ; B~?T I WP. m; -1 'PV. m m , :@, ; E q I OP. gi9T7t ll P C 3m.m 1 AO- ~ I ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ I P S . ~ I P P . ~ I G D . ~ , ~ S ? ~ I mr. - I CS. - IDZ mft II h; 'leave: 111, P. ; I IPV. mh, mq, ; II PF. e, jr f?~ or TWI I no. m N 01W T I rr. I PS. @?I% I PP. $h I OD. fm, 1 INF. I C8. $- I Ds. m* 11 f$&hims, 'stlike,' VII, P. fmf~ I IMP. afm; *I IPV. , m, I or. fern 11 PF. I AO. qf$$t7(1 *.fgmqfal p9.m lfrn I c s . f - $ F m a 11 3 hu, ' ~acrifice,' 111, 3- (p. 96) 11 m. or m- -1 AO. FT. mmI m . ~ a Im1 G D . m I INF. I CS. ~7~ / Ds. wd?f I INT. 11 g hy, 'take,' I, m, 08 II PF. qSTT, ~ u f ; v: I *o. ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ . T s f ' ~ ; ~~TI=.~~~IAo.MTI I GD. wr, O m 1 Cs. m?f I Ds. f m , 08 1 INT. n W r 3 h ~ i , 'be ashamed,' 111, P. ; f*: ; wfm I IMP. I rpV. I OP. fm 11 PF. f?q3jm; fqm: 1 PP. a or fi I cs. I INT. 8jfWI II 2 hve, ' call,' I, m, 08 11 PF. m; m: I 1 . PS. P P . m l QD. m, m F . m I C S . m 1 IST. mm LIST OF VERBS 23 = q s v a j , ' embrace,' I , A. -3 ll I PP. Wli I wn q svap, ' sleep,' 11, P. II PF. 9-m ; -3: I no. qqluflq I *. wa3R I PS. qQl3 I no. rn I PP. gT;I I GD. I mF. I cs. I Ds. 9- mhan, 'k i l l , ' 11, P. 9f;iil ; q?l: ; B~?T I WP. m; -1 'PV. m m , :@, ; E q I OP. gi9T7t ll P C 3m.m 1 AO- ~ I ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ I P S . ~ I P P . ~ I G D . ~ , ~ S ? ~ I mr. - I CS. - IDZ mft II h; 'leave: 111, P. ; I IPV. mh, mq, ; II PF. e, jr f?~ or TWI I no. m N 01W T I rr. I PS. @?I% I PP. $h I OD. fm, 1 INF. I C8. $- I Ds. m* 11 f$&hims, 'stlike,' VII, P. fmf~ I IMP. afm; *I IPV. , m, I or. fern 11 PF. I AO. qf$$t7(1 *.fgmqfal p9.m lfrn I c s . f - $ F m a 11 3 hu, ' ~acrifice,' 111, 3- (p. 96) 11 m. or m- -1 AO. FT. mmI m . ~ a Im1 G D . m I INF. I CS. ~7~ / Ds. wd?f I INT. 11 g hy, 'take,' I, m, 08 II PF. qSTT, ~ u f ; v: I *o. ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ . T s f ' ~ ; ~~TI=.~~~IAo.MTI I GD. wr, O m 1 Cs. m?f I Ds. f m , 08 1 INT. n W r 3 h ~ i , 'be ashamed,' 111, P. ; f*: ; wfm I IMP. I rpV. I OP. fm 11 PF. f?q3jm; fqm: 1 PP. a or fi I cs. I INT. 8jfWI II 2 hve, ' call,' I, m, 08 11 PF. m; m: I 1 . PS. P P . m l QD. m, m F . m I C S . m 1 IST. mm APPENDIX I1 METRE I N CLASSICAL SANSKRIT The versification of classical Sanskrit differs considerably from that of the Vedic hymns, being more artificial, more subject to strict rules, and showing a far greater number of varieties of metre. almsical Sanskrit metres are divided into- I. those measured by the number of syllables; 11. those measured by the number of morae they contain. I Nearly all Sanskrit poetry i s written in stanzas consisting of four metrical lines or quarter-verses (called p%la,'foot '= quarter). These stanzas are regularly divided into hemistichs or half-verses. Quantity is measured as in Latin and Greek. Vowels are long by nature or by position. Two con~otla~lts make a preceding short vowel long by position, AnusvIra and Visarga counting as full consonants. A short vowel counts as one mora (mSitrS), a long vowel (by nature or position) as two. I. metres measured by Syllables (Akgitra-cchanw). These consist of- A. two half-verses identical in structure, while the quarter- verses I and 3 differ from z and 4. 33. four quarter-verses all identical in structure. 1 A. The ~ l o k a . The Sloka (' song,' from iru, ' hear '),developed from the Vedic Anustubh, is the Epic verse, and may be considered the Indian METRE IN CLASSICAL SANSKRIT 233 verse par excellence, occurring, as it does, far more frequently than any other metre in classical Sanskrit poetry. I t consists of two half-verses of sixteen syllables or of four psdas of eight syllables. Dividing the half-verse into four feet of four syllables, we find that only the second and the fonrth foot are determined as to quantity. The fonrth is necessarily iambic ( u - Y) , while the second may assume four different forms. The first and the third foot are undetermined, except that v v is always excluded from them. By far the commonest form of the second foot is v - - ~ (in Nala I442 out of 1732 half-verses). The type of the Sloka may therefore be represented thus- . * . r I v - - Y I . * * . J v - v V l j E. g. Asid r5jZ NNg nZm% 1 VilgsGn"asBt6 b&li 1 UpZpann6 &air ietai 1 riipiviin a$vlk6vTd%b 11 I t is only when the second foot has v - - " that the first foot may assume all its admissible forms. When the second foot has any of the other three forms, the first foot is limited, as shown in the following table :- I. 11. 111. IV. I. . . ~ v - - * ~ ~ \ The first (typical) form is called Pathyl; the remaining three, called Vipulii, are ,in the above table arranged in order of frequency of occurrence. Out of 2579 half-verses taken from KiilidIisa (Raghu-vat& and Kum&ra-sambhava), MZgha, Bhiiravi, and B i l h a ~ , each of the four admissible forms of the Sloka in the above order claims the following share : 2289, 116, 89, 85. =34 APPENDIX II I n the table a dot indicates an undetermined syllable: a comma marks the caesura. The end of a pEde coincides with the end of a word (sometimes only with the end of a word in a compound), and the whole Sloka contains a complete sentence. The construction does not run on into the next line. Occafiionally three half-verses are found conibined into a triplet. B. All Four P5das identical in Form. I. Of the numerous varieties developed from the Vedic Tri- stubh (11 syllables to the pZda), the commonest are- a. Indravajrii: - - u 1 - - u 1 u - u 1 - - 11 b. Upendravajrs: u - u 1 - - u 1 u - u 1 - - 11 c. Upajkti (a mixture of the above two) : ~ - u I - - u I , - , I - ~ I I d. S~tlini :- - - I-,-uI--uI-- l l / e. Rathoddhatii: - u - 1 u u u / - u - ] v - 11 a. The commonest forms of Jagati ( ~ a syllables to the P d a ) are- a. ~amhastha: u - u ~ - - u ~ u - u ] - - w - ~ ~ I b. Drutavilambita: u w u 1 - u u l - u u 1 - u - (1 3. The commonest variety of ~'akvari: (14 syllables to the psda) is- V a s a n t a t i l a k i i : - - u l - ~ u l ~ - ~ l ~ - ~ l - ~ I I 4. The commonest form of Atiiakvari (15 syllables to the piida) is- Main?: u u u ~ u u v ~ - - , - ~ v - - ~ v - ~ ~ ~ 5. The commonest varieties of Atya$i (17 syllables to the pEda) are- a. ~ikharini: ~ - - ~ - - - , I u u ~ ~ ~ v - ( - u ~ ~ v - \ ( 6. Rz+i:vuvIvw-,I--- I - , u - l u u - l u - ~ ~ METRE IN CLASSICAL SANSKRIT 235 6. The commonest form of Atidhgti (19 syllables to the piida) is- &ErdiiIavikridita : --- ] u u - ~ U - u ~ " v - , ~ - - " I - - u I " I I 7. The commonest variety of Prak~t i (a1 syllables to the piida) is- Sragdharii : --- ~ - v - ~ - , u u ~ v u v ~ u - , - ~ " - - ~ " - - ll 11. Metres measured by Morae. A. Metres in which the sum total only of the morae is prescribed (BIiitr5-chandah). The VaitZliya contains 30 morae in the half-verse, 14 in the first pzda, 16 in the second. Each pPda may he divided into three feet, the second always consisting of a choriambus, and the third of two iambics ; while the firbt foot in the first piida consists of a pyrrhic, in the second p%da of an anapaest. The half-verse thus contains 21 syllables. The following is the scheme of the half-verse :- y u ~ - " u - ~ u - v ~ ~ ~ u v - ~ - u v - [ u - u ~ ~ ~ B. Metres in which the number of naorae in each foot (gana) is specified (Gana-cchandah). &ry&, or G&thZ has 7) feet to the half-verse, each foot con- taining 4 morae (= 30 morae altogether). The q morae may take the form u u u u, - -, - u u, or u u - ; in the 2nd and 4th they may also become u - u ; in the 6th they appear as u u u v or v - u. The 8th foot i~ al\~ays monosyllabic; the 6th of the second half-verse consists of a single short syllable. Hence the second half-verse contains only z t morae. APPENDIX I11 CHIEF PECULIAFLITIES OF VEDIC GRAMMAR I. As several stages can be distinguished in the development of the Vedic language, some of the following statements are strictly applicable only to the Rig-veda, the oldest and most important monument of Vedic literature. The Alphabet. 2. The sounds are the same as in Sanskrit, with the exception of two additional letters. Cerebral d and ? dh between vowels regularly become cerebral 1 and a lh ; - e S g . ide', ' 1 praise '; mi!hfipe=wmiphdle, ' to the bonntif~il.' I I Sandhi. I 3. A. Vowels. Hiatus is not avoided either within a word, or between the members of a compound, or between the words of a sentence; and, in particular, initial a after e and o (21 a) is only occasionally elided ;--e. g. skriasya, ' ofthe sun ' ; su-Ahviam, ' wealth in horses' ; VCirunasya AguQ, 'of Varuca (and) Agni ' ; abhi eti, ' he goes towards'; vSpro aksarat, 'the priest poured out.' a. The e of the pronominal forms (dat., loc.) tve', 'to or in thee,' asm6, ' to or in us,' yusme', ' to or in you,' remains unchanged before vowels; as does the final o produced by the coalescence of a with the particle n, as in Btho ( d t h a ~ ) , m6 {mb), n6 ( n b ) . B. Consonants. The final sy1lal)les Ln, in, En, Tn are treated i. e. Bn becomes &'I (except in the 3. pl. subjunctive, where it represents an original ~ n t ) , while in, iin, Tn become i g r , , 11. ah ! ' 181 (p. 158). 6-cam, ' sip,' 133 5 I. i-tta, pp. of %-dB, take,' 160, a b. ztman, m. ' soul,' :self,' 90 ; I 15 b. Stmane-nada. n. 'middle voice.' 121. . , 5-diya, prp. .gd. ' taking,' 179. iidi, In. ' beginning,' 189 h. I-di8, 'enjoin,' w. dat., 198, 2 a ; zoo B 2. Bdya, adj. 'first,' 189 h. - h a , pt, sf., 158 a ; 182, I b ; ipv. sf., 131, 4 a (p.go), f.n. -Lni, sec. sf., 182, 2 (p. 163). Ip, 'obtain,' pf., 1 3 5 , ~ ; ds., 170, z . npah, f. pl. 'water,' 193, 3 d. A-yatta, pp. 'dependent on,' w. gen., 302, z b. .iyana, sec. sf., 182, 2 (p. 163). Byus, n. ' life,' 83. R-rabhya, prp. gd. = since,' I 79, 2. S-riidha, pp. ' ridden ' and ' riding,' - - 208 b. HryB, f. a metre, p. 235. iv im, prn; 'we two,' 109. h i s , adv. openly,' 184 b. 8-iams, 'reckon on,' w. loc., 203 e. R-dis, f. blessing,' 83 6. . ri-i~tya, prp.gd.'resorting to: 179, I. 6-kru, '~ I .o I I I~s~ , ' 2 0 0 A I a. ;is, - - bhob, V. of bhavat, 49 ; 86 a ; p. 158. bliramd, ' fall,' pr., 133 B a. blirajj, ' fry,' pr., 133 <: 3. bhrarn, 'wander,' pr., I 33 B I ; pf., '39, 1. bhrltarau, m. du. 'brother and sister,' 186, 3 c. M, Sandhi of final, 42; internal Sandhi of, 68. -ma, prj. sf., 182, I b; sec.sf., p. 164; nm. sf., 107. maghavan, m. 'Indra,' 91, 5. majj, 'sink,'ft., Igr b, 2; pp., 160, I b. -mat, sec. sf., p. 165 ; stems in, 86. mata, pp. 'approved,' w. gen., 202, S 0. " - - mati, f. ' thought,' 98 a. -math, adj. ' destroying,' 77 a. mad, I. 'rejoice,' pr., 133 B I ; ao., . I45 b. mad, 2. prn. stem, 109. madiya, poss. prn. ' my,' I 16. inadhu, n. ' honey,' 98 b. madhu-lih, m. ' bee.' 81. man, 'think,' ao., ri4, I; gd., 16j a; ds., 171, I. . . . -man, stems in, go. manas, n. co~upounded w. inf., 211 b. manasvin, adj. ' wise,' 87 11. nlantraya, den. 'take counsel,' I 75 n. manth, 'churn,' pi-., 133 A 4 ; 134 F 2. mandakrantii, f. (' approaching slowly '), a metre, p. 235. -mays, sec. suffix, p. 16j. -mxsi, Vedic ending of I. pl. pr., P, 239. mahat, a. ' great,' 85 ; 188, a c. mahlriija, m. 'great king,' 188, 2 c. mH, I. ' measure,' pr., I34 11 2 ; ds., 171, 3. mB, 2. proh. pel., 128; 180; 213d; 215 e. ~ . l b , 3. encl. acc. of aham, log cc ; 195, 1 b. miiti-pitarau, m. du. 'father and 1 mother,' 186, 3 c. ' m i t ~ , f. 'mother,' IOI ; 186, 3 e., 1 -mitra,n.colnpounded w.pt.,zog,~d. SANSKRIT INDEX 255 miitrii, f. ' measure,' I 89g. mi-drba, prn. ' like me,' n 7. -m%na, part. sf., 158 ; 182, I b. m%maka, poss. prn. ' my ,' I I 6 a. malini, f. (' garlanded '), a metre, P. 234. -mi, pri. sf., 182, I b. mitrz-varunau. m. du., 186, 3 b. . , -min, stenla in, 87 a. ~ r ~ i l , ( wiuk,' ao., 149 a, 2. muktv8, prp. gd. =' without,' I 79. moc, 'loosen,' pr., 133 C I ; ao., 149, z ; ps. ao., 155. muh, ' be confused,' 69 b. muhuh, adv. again,' 180 (p. 154). miirdhan, m. 'head,' 6 ; 90. miirqhanya, a. ' cerebral,' 6. my, ' die,' ds., 169, 1; int., 173 d. mrj,'wipe,'pr.,133A1; 134A1b. mrta-bhartykr, a. f., 189 j. mydu, adj. ' soft,' 98. yic, 'ask,' w. two acc., 198, 2. yidyi, yidyba, prn. 'what like,' 11 7. yivat, prn. 'as much,' 118; adv., 'just,' 212 , z ; cj., 180 (p. 156) ; prp. adv., 177 a. yu; 'join,' pr., 134 A I a ; pf., 137, I a. -yu, pri. sf, 182, I b. yukta, pp. 'prepared,' w.loc., 204 c ; ' fitting,' w. inf., 2 1 I d . yuj, 'join,' fp., 162, I o ; ps. w. loc., 204c; w. inf., 211 c. yudhi-sthira,Tp.cd.,~8 j, 6 a (p. 172). yuvati; f. maiden,' 9 j c. yuvan, m. 'youth,' 91,4. yuvgm, prn. 'ye two,' 109. yusmad, prn. stem, 109. yusrnadiya, poss. prn. ' your,' I 16. yfiyarn,. p;n. ' you,' 109 ; 193, 3 a. yena, cj. that,' r 80 (p. I 56). yojana, n. distance of 9 miles, 197, n>e,encl.~en.dat.prn.,10ga;I95,Ib. mnii, ' stu(\y,' pr., I33 A 5. mli, ' fade,' pp., 160, I ; cs., 168, I. Ya, rel. ' who,' 1x4; with ka, 119 b ; repeated, I I 9 C. -ya, ps. sf., I Z I ; 154 ; fp. sf., 162, 1 ; 182, I b ; gd. sf., 164; int. sf., 172; d e n . s f . , I 7 5 ; sec.nominalsf , p., 165 ; ordinal sf., 107. yaj, sacrifice,' pf., 135, 4 ; 1.17, z o ; ps., 154, G ;, pf. pt., 157; pp., 160, z ; I 99, I 3 (p. 188). gat, ' strive,' w. dat., zoo B a ; w. loc., zoq c. -yat, sf. of quantity, 118. ya-tas, adv. 'whence,' 180 @. 155). yati, prn. 'as many,' 118 a. ya-tra, adv. 'where,' 180 (p. 155). ya-thz, adv. ' as,' ISO (p. 155). yad, cj. ' that, ' 180 (p. 155). yadi, cj. 'if,' 180 (p. 155) ; 218. yam, restrain,' pr., 133 A a ; pf., 139, 2. yaviyas, cpv. ' younger,' 103, a. ya&as, n. ' fame,' 83. -yas, cpv. sf., 103, 2 a. yi , 'go,' 131, 6 ; ao., 146; W. acc., I971 I Q. 2 ; 2 0 3 j . R, as original final, 46, f.n. I ; 47 ; 50; stelus in, 82. -ra, pri. sf., p. 163 ; sec. sf., p. 165. rac, fashion,' ao. ps., I 55 a. rata, pp. delighting in,' 204e. ratntt-bhnta, pp. 'being a jewel,' 1 8 8 , 1 c ; 1 8 4 , ~ . ratni-bhiita, pp. 'become a jewel,' 184, N. rathi, m. ' charioteer ' (Vedic), p. 238. rathoddhati, f. n metre, p. 234. rabh, 'seize,' pa. ao., 15 j a ; ds., 171, 3. ram, 'be glad,' ao., 144, 1. r i j , 'shine,' pf., 139, I. rijan, m. king,' 90, I ; 188, z c. rija-putra, m. ' king's own,' 189 a. rijarsi, m. 'royal sage,' 189, I. r&j&ya, den. 'play the king,' 175. ratri, f. 'night,' 188, z c. ridh, 'succeed,' ao., 149 a I. -ru, pri. sf.? p. 163. rnc, I. f. ' l~ght,' 79 a. ruc, 2. ' please,' w. dat., zoo A 2 ; w. gen., 202, I e. ruj, f. ' disease,' 79. 256 SANSKRIT INDEX rud, ' weep,' pr., 134 A 3 a (p. 106). rudh, 'obstruct,' pr., 127, 3 ; no., 144, 5; ft., 151 a ; par., p. 100. rah, 'grow,' no. ps,, 155 a, 4 ; cs., 168, 2; ds., 170, I a. rai, m. ' wealth,' 102. -La, sec. suffix, p. IGF; lak?rni, f. 'prosperity,' 100, 4. lag, ' cling to,' w. loc., 203 e. laghiyas, cpv. ' lighter,' 103, 2. laghu,adj. 'light,' fem. nf, 98 c. labh, ' take,' cs., 168, 4 ; ds., I 71,s. likh, ' scratch,' pp., 160, 3. lip, ' paint,' pr., 133 C I. lih, ' lick,' 69 ; pr., 127, I ; nom. tern. 81. vaqaya, den. ' depict,' 175 a. vartate, 'goes on,' w. pr. part., 207; 210 b. vartatncna, pr. pt., 205, I b. varstih, f. pl. ' rains,' 193, 3 d. varsistha, spv. oldest,' 103, 2 b. varsiyas, cpv. 'older,' 103, z b. va$ ' desire,' 134 A z a. vas, I. ' dwell,' pf., 137, z c ; ao., 144, I ; ft., 151 b, 3 ; pp., 160, 3 a; 203 b. vas, a. 'wear,' pf., 139, 2 . vas, 3. encl. pm., 109a; 195, I b. -vas, pf. pt. in, 89 ; 157 ; 182, I b. vasanta-tilakit, f. a metre, p. 234. vah,'carry,' 69 b ; pf., 137, 2 o; inf., I 67. . - 208. -vat, 2. pcl. 'like,' 180 (p. 156). vad, 'speak,' pf., 137, 2 c ; ao., 145 b ; pp., 160, 3 a ; w. gen., 2 0 2 , I d. vadh, 'slay,' ao. ps., 155 a. vadhii, f. 'woman,' roo (p. Go). -van, pri. sf., p. 163 ; sec. sf., p. 165 ; stems in, 90; fem. of, 95 c. - ? li, ' cling,' pp., 160, I. lup, ' break,' pr., 133 C I. lubh, ' desire,' fp., 16a, 3; w. dat., zoo A 2. la, 'cut,' pr., 134F I (p. 108) ; pp , 160, I. loka, m. sg. pl., ' world,' 193, I. -Va, pri. suffix, p. 163. vamia-sth8, f. a metre, p. 234. vac, 'speak,' pf., 135, 4 ; 137, z c ; 138, 8 ; ao., 147 a ; ps., 154, 6 ; pp., 160, 2 ; fp., 162, I c; gd., 163; 164 ; w. two acc., 198, z. vahcaya, ' cheat,' w. abl., 2 0 1 b. -vat,1.sec.sf,p.r65;stemsin,86; 89,f .n.z; 118;act .pp.in,161; vap, ';trew,' pf., 137, 2 c. vam, vomit,' pf., 139, 2. vayam, p. 'we,' 109. varam, n. 'better,' 180 (p. 156); 211. vara-varnin, a., I 89j. variyas, 'better,'cpv. of vara, 1 0 3 , ~ . varjayitvii, prp, gd. 'except,' 179. v i (ve), 'weave,' ps., 154, irr., j (P. 132). v i , encl. cj. 'or,' 180 (p. 156). vsgmin, a. ' eloquent,' 87 a. vitc, f. ' speech,' 79. vitcas-pati, ~n .~ lord of speech,'187 a. vlm, encl. prn., 109 a. vir, n. 'water,' 46, f.n. I. viiri, n. ' water,' 98 a, b. vi-kri, ' sell,' w. dat., gen., loc., 204 b. vij, ' tremble,' pp., 160, I b. vi-t~, 'impart,' w. loc., 204 b. vid, I. 'know,' 3. pl. impf., 131, 6 ; pf., 139, 3 ; pf. pi., 157 a ; cs., 1 6 8 ; d s . , 1 6 9 , 2 ; i n t . , 1 7 2 ~ . vid, a. 'find,'pr., 1 3 3 C 1 ; pp., . . 160, I a. vidita, pp. ' known, '~ . gen., 202,3n. vidyate, ' exists,' w. gen., 2 0 2 , I a. vidvas, pr. pf. pt. 'knowing,' 89 b. -viu, sec. sf., p. 16 j ; stems in, 87 a. vin15.prp. adv. ' without,' 177 b. vinis~ni, a. f. 'destructive,' w. gen., 202 , 2 a. vipulz, f. a form of the dloka metre, p. 233. vi-bhakta, pp. w. act. and ps. sense, a08 b. vi-yuj, 'separate,' w. abl., 201 b. vi-rsma, m. ' stop,' 9. vi8, I. m. 'settler,' 79. vi6,a.'ent,er,'ao.p~.,155;ds.,170,1. SANSKRIT INDEX 257 vi-8esa; m. 'difference,' at end of cd., 187 c ; w. gen., 202, 6. viiva-jit, a. ' all-conquering,' 187 b. Qatan~, n. ' a hundred,' 106 c. Barn, ' cease,' pr., I 33 B I. -8~8, distributive adv. sf., 108 e. vi-bas, ' trust,' w. gen., 202, I c ; I Biirdola-vikridita, n. (' tiger-play '), a w. loc., 203 e. I metre, p. 235. vi-ivgss, m. 'confidence,' w. loc., ' 204 d. visvaiw, a. ' all-pervading,' 93 a. vi-sarga, in. ' h a d breathing,' 4, f.n. I ; 6, f. n. I ; I j, S ; 27 ; ag, 6 ; 3 r ; 3 2 ~ ~ ; 3 7 ; 4 3 ; 4 4 ; 4 5 ; 4 6 ; 48 ; 49 ; 82 ; 1). 49, f. n. I . vi-syj, 'send away,' w. two acc., 198, 3 ; W. dat., zoo A I b. vi-srnyta, pp., w. act. and ps. sense, 208 b. vr, 'cboose,'pf., 136a; w. loc., "4 c. vyt (vartate), w. loc., 203 c ; m. pt., kiilini, f. a metre, p. a34. 869, 'rule,'pr., 1.34A4a; ps., I 54 "2. gikharini, C a metre, p. 234. 4i, 'lie,' pr., 134 A I c ; ds., 169, 2. &toea-kiranau, m. du. ' moon and sun,' 1 8 9 ~ . Quci, a. ' pure,' 98. Quni, f. ' bitch,' 95. bubh, ' beautify,' ds., 169, 2. i f , 'crush,' da., 169, 2. Brad, ' heart,' compounded with dhii, 'pot,'184b. I &am, ' be \\.eary,' pr., 133 B I. Br~vaya, cs. ' tell,: w. dat. or gen., 207. 198, 2 (1 , 4a . vai, expletive pcl., 180, p. I j7. vaitgliya, n. a metre, p. 235. dvas,'breathe,'pr., I ~ ~ A ~ c L (p. 106j. $, internal Sandhi of, 64 a. vyadh, 'pierce,' pr., 133 E 2 ; pf., , ?a!, nm. [s ix, ' 106 a. 137,,2 C ; ao., 14gn I. sodaia, nm.' sixteen,' p. 68, f.n. 3. vyavamta, pp. 'reso~ved,' w. ciat., . . sthiv, ' spit,' pr., 133 A I. zoo B 2. vygghra-buddhi, f. 'thought of (its / S, becomes t , 66 B I ; 89, f. n. 2 ; b:ing)atiger,'rS7,5; 1gg,1(1. 1 1 g 1 b 3 ; 171 ,5 ; becomess,Gi; vrasc, ' cut,' pr., 133 C 3. i disappears, 66 I: 2 ; stems in, 83. -s, aorist suffix, 143 ; 144. S, initial, changed to ch, jj. sa, prn. 'that,' 4S ; 110; 192 ; 195, isms, 'tell,' w. dat., zoo A I a. 1 2b. bak, 'be able,' pr., 134 C z ; fp., 162, 1 -sa, ao. sf., 141 o ; ds. sf., 169. I c ; ds., 171, 3 ; n~ dat., 200 B 2 ; saqvyta, pp. ' closed' (pronunciation w. inf., 2 r I c. of vowel a), I j. iakya, fp. ' possible,' w. inf., 21 I d. sam-Bri, ' cling,' w. loc., 203 e. Bank, ' doubt,' pp., 160, 3. ( sam-skrta, pp. ' elaborated (cp. Iat. bankar~ciir~%h, m. pl. of respect, j per-fectus), I. 193, 3 a. 1 P J L ~ ~ , m. ' vicinity,' I 78. 2 ~ 8 SAXSICHIT INDEX sakta, pp. ' attached,' with gen. and ! siidhu, adv. ' \\,ell,' 181 (1). I j8). loc., POZ, a b ; a03 e. ! siiyam-priilar, cd. adv. 'evening and salitlii, n. 'thigh,' 99, 3. I iawning,' I 86, 3. salthi, m. ' friend,' 99, 2 ; 188, 2 c. 1 sQrdham, prp. adv. 'with,' w. inst., sakhi, f. ' friend,' 99, 2. 7 7 b i 1997 2. safij, ' adhere,' pr., 133 A 4 ; w. loc., sprinkle,' pr., 133 C I ; ao., 14;. 203 e. si?, aorist suffix, 142 ; 146. -. sat,prpart.'being;156<~; 205, I a,/,. ~uc~'preswut, ' pr., 127.4 ; I ; satyam, adv. (truly,' 180 (p. 1 ~ 7 j . par., p. 98. sad, 'sink,' pp, 133A I ; c a . , 168. 611-manau, a. ' cheerfol,' 33 a. sadTia, a. Illke,' w. inst. or gen., su-h~d, m. ' friend,' 77 ; 18y b. 199, 2 c. sr, 'go,' pf., 136 a. sam-dlii,in. ' euphonic combination,' srj, 'creste,'ao., 144, 4 ; ft., 151 I,, I ; 16 ;. 1431 5. ds., 170, I. sam-nrdhl, m. 'vicinity,' 178. I q p , creep,' ft., 151 1, I. sa-patni-ka, a. ' acco~npanled by his atu, ' praise,' pf., I 36 a ; 137, I ; 1 3 8 ~ wife,' I 89 j. ' 5 ; ds., 169, I. sam, prp., before k ~ , ' make,' 134 R. st?, 'strew,' pf,, 137, I tr ; ps., 15.4, sama, a. ' equal,' w. inst. or geri., 4 ; pp., 160, I. 199, 2 C ; 202, 2 dl ., ! stri, f. 'woman,' 100 a (p. 62). sam-aksam, ljrp. atlv.'before,' 177 d. / stha, ' stand,' pf. pt., Sg b ; pr., samanta-tas, adv. ' around,' 17; a. I 133 A 3 ; au., 144, 3 ; 148 ; pp., saniam, prp. adv. ' with,' w. inst., 1 160, z ; inf., 167 ; cs., 168 (,; ds., 177 f i ; '99, 2. i 170, I ; w. loc., 20.7, c. samayj, prp. adv. ' near,' \v. acc., ; sthita, pli. =sat w. pt., zo,;, I 7). 177 a. sthira, a. ' firln,' cpv. of, 102, 2 a. namartha, a. ' able,' w. loc., 204 c ; j sn8, ' bathe,' ce., 168, irr. I . w. inf., 211. snih, 'be oily,' pp., 69 (I. s a m ~ n a , a. equal,'^. inst., 199, 2 c. 1 sprS,, ' toych,' ao., 1 4 4 ~ 4 ; ft., 151 h, I. samipa, r,. ' vicinity,' I 78. I - s p ~ s , a. touching,' 79 d. sam-pad, 'tend to,' w. dat., zoo B I. I sp~li, 'desire,' rr-. dat., zoo -4 z. sam-prassraqa, reduction of the ! sma, pcl. used m. pr., 21 2 , I a. syllables ya, va, ra, to i, u, r , s m ~ , 'rememher,' ps., 154,3; w. gen., p . 1 1 , f . n . r ; p . 3 z , f . n . r ; p . 5 1 , j a o z , ~ b . 1:n. I ; 91, 3. + 5 ; 96, 2 ; pr., sya, future suffix, I-;I. I ? 3 B a , C 3 ; I 34 A a a ; pf., 1 35, 1 ;rag-dharii, f. (' wearing a garland'), 4 ; 137, 2 C ; pe., 154,G; pp.. 160, 1 a metre, p. 23.5. z . 3 a ; ds., 1-1 2. i srilj, f. 'garlantl,' 79 b. sap-bhiivayx, ds. : expect,' w.. pen. ! sru: 'flow,' pf., 136 I ( . or loc., 2 0 2 , I ( 1 ; aogg. sruc, f. LI:idle{ i g n. samjaiic, a. ' right,' 93 a. sva, refl. prn. own,' 115 c ; I 2 0 C. eamrij, m. ' sovereign,' 79. ; svap, 'sleep,' pr., 134 A 3 u ; pf., swva, pm. a. iyfl,' 120 b. / 1 3 ' / , z c : p s . , 1 5 4 , 6 ; p p . ~ 1 6 o , z ; sarva-tas, prp. adr. ' around,' I;; o . (Is., 171, 2. sah, ' bear,' pp., Gg b ; inf., 167. svayaln, prn. ' self,' I I j (I. s ~ h a , prp. adv. with,' \r,. inst., svar, ' heaven,' 46, f.n. I. . 177b; 199: 2 (P. 188); 1 svarita, falling accent,' p. 242. sahaeram: n. thousan(\, 106 c. svar-pati, m. 'lord of heaven,' 50 n . sikam, prp. adv. 'with,' w. inst.. 1 svasr, f. lsister, ' ior a. 177 1) ; 199. 2 . i s v s ~ t i , ij. 'hail,' 181 (p.,1~8). sv-8yatau1, d v . ' welcoule,' w. dat., hasta-gata, pp. helt1.i~ the hand,' zoo -4 3. p. 171, f.n. 4. svlmin, 111. 'master,' 87 ((. hasty-aivau, nl. dn. Dvandrn cd. sv8mi-ya, den. 'treat as master,' I 75. ' elephant and horse,' 186, I. ha, I. ' depnrt,' pr., 134 I; 2. H, 6, f.11. 3 ; 29, 6 ; aspiration of 1 h i , 2 . abandon,' pr., I 34 I3 2 n ; l ~ . , initial, 54 ; internal Sandhi of, 69 ; 201 b. noun stems in, 81. I h~,3.ij.'alas!'181(p.rgg). ha, enci. pcl., 180 (p. 137:. ! hl, I. i r ~ ~ p e l , ~ pf., 13g,4. liao, ' kill,' pf. pt., 89 b ; 92 ; pr., hi, 2 . cj. 'for,' 180 (p. 157). 134 9 2 c ; pf., 136, 3 ; 137, 2 b ; -hi, ipv. sf., 131, 4. 139, 4 ; per. ft., 152 n ; irr. pt., hims, injure,' pr., 134 D. 1 j 6 a ; pp., 160, 2 ; gd., 1 6 j a ; cp., 1 IIU, ' sacrifice,' pr., 127, 2 ; pt., 156; 169, 5 ; ds., 171, I. 4. / 158 a ; fp., 162, I b ; par., p. 96. Iianta, ij. ' pray,' 181 (p. I 59). i ha, 'cal l '=hvl , int., 172 a. harini, E a metre, p. 234. 1 brasiyas, cpv. ' shorter,' 103, 2. havis, n. ' offering,' 83. 1 h v l (hve), ' call,' pf., 136, 4 ; ye". hasta, I I I . ' hand,' a t end of pass. eels.. ' pf., 140, 3 ; pe., 154 ( I , 3 ; ~ n t . , I P ~ i . 172 0. GENERAL INDEX The abbreviations <>ccurring i11 this Index have b e c ~ ~ explained a t t he beginning of Appendix I and of the Sanskrit Index. The figures refer to paragraphs unless pages are specified. Abbreviation, sign of, g. ' sense of past passive participle, Ablative, syntactical use of, 201 ; , 208 a, h. with prepositions, 176, 2 ; I 77 ( I , , Adjectives, 86 ; 87 ; 88 ; 93 ; 95 c ; b, c ; '79, 2. pronominal, 120; expressing !den- Absolute cases, 205 ; participles with tity, equality, likeness construed eva or -mltra, 205, I (1. with inst., 199, 2 c ; with gen., Accent, 15, 10; ~ o q d; 107; log n ; ' 202, 2 ( 7 ; co~lbtrued with the in- 112; 1 6 ~ ; 175; 1;6, f.n.; Apl). I I I , I ~ - 1 8 ; shlft of, 7 2 cc, b ; 860 ; 94 ,3a ; 126; 131; 18ga;Vedic,pp. 242-4; of the vocative, 1). 243; of the finite verb, pp. 243-4. Accordance with. exvressed hv the instrumental, lg9,'1 b. Accusative, syntactical use of, I 97 ; double, 198; with infinitive, not used in Sanskrit, a11 ; with pre- positions, 176, I ; 177 a , b , C, d ; '79,'. Action nouns, 1S2, I. hct i re , voice (Parasmaipad;~), I 2 I ; finitivr, 21 I. :ldverbi.al compounds, I 86, 3 ; I 88, 3 ; particles, 180. adverb^, 180 ; nr~meral, 108 a-c ; indefioite, 119 (( ; prepositional, 177 : constructed with gen., 202, j. . . Ager~t, expressed by i l k . , 199 ; nouns, IOI ; 152; ISL, I. Aggregative numeral nouns, 108 (1. d i m of an action, explessed by dat , 2 0 0 B I , 2 ; byloc., 204C; 2 1 1 . Alphabet, arrangement of the, 4 ; 6 ; table facing y. I ; the Vedic, p. 236. GENERAL INDEX Analogy of feminines in i, p. 55, f. n. 1 t e~na l Sandl~i of, 64 ; 65 ; 6; ; 5; of stems in -an, p. 56, N, z ; j nominal stems in, 80; Vedic 1 and o f s t ems in -u ,p .57 , f . n . z ; of !h,p.236. stems in I , p. 58, f. n. I. I Changeable consonant ~tems, 84-96: Aorist, 141-9 ; sa- ao., 141 n ; s- ao., 1 in -at, 85 ; in -mat, -vat, 86 ; in 143 ; 144, is- ao., 145 ; sis- ao., 1 .m, 87 ; in -iyas, 88; in +as, 89 ; 146 ; second ao.: form with the- 1 in -an (-man, -van), go, 92, 96 ; matic -a, 147 ; root ao., 148 ; re- in -ac, 93 ; feminine of, 95. duplicated ao., 149 ; passive ao., Cognate wcusative, 197, 4. 155 ; syntactical use of, 213 c. Apodosis in conditional sentences, expressing plural sense, z r 6 d ; 218. Appoaitionindescriptiveco~l~pounds, 188, I. Article, rgz ; 195 b. Articulation, place or organ of, 29. / Aspiration, 29, 6 ; 30, 2 ; initial, 40 (6), 53 (i), 55 (h) ; loss of, 62 ; compensation for lossof, 55; 62 a, b. Assimilation, 16 ; p. 67, f. n. I ; of final t, 34; 37; 38; 39; of final n, 36,2:4 ; 37; 40; of final m, 42 B. Attraction in gender, 194, 3 c; in number, 194, 4 a. Augment, 128; Sandhi of, 23 c; 128; Vedic, p. 239. A v e s t a , 1 3 1 , 6 ; 1 3 4 , 1 b ; I 3 7 , 2 a , f. n. Bahuvrihi compounds used parti- cipially, 206 a ; with infinitive as first member, 2 I I b. Renedictive (Precative), 150; 21 7. Cardinal points, zor c. Cardinals, 104 ; declension of, l o j ; 106 ; ~yntax of, 106 c. Case-endings,normal, 71; sometimes retained in compounds, 187 a. Cases, 70 c ; 176; strong, 73; syn- tactictical ase of the, 196-204. Causative, 168 ; its suffix dropped, 154,7; 155 a 4 ; 160,3; 162,s a ; its suffix retained, 163 a ; 164 n ; 168b; suffix -pays, 168 a ; 155a4; syntax of the, 198,4. Cause, expressed by the abl., 201, I , Cerebralization of dentals, 64 ; 65 (n); 144, 2 (dh); 67 (s); 145 (8). CereLrrcls, 6, f.n. 2 ; I j, 5. 7 ; In- in -tars, 103, I ; 182,2 ; abl. after, 201, 2 (1. Comparison, degrees of, I03 ; in compounds, 188, I b ; 189 e. Compounded verb, 164, 165 (gd.) ; 184. Compounds, 184-9; verbal, 184 ; nominal, 185 : co-ordinative (Dvandva), I 86 ; dependent (Tat- purusa) determinatives, 187 ; de- scriptive (Karmadhaaya) deter- minative~, 188 ; possessives (Ba- huvrihi), 189 : ending in -in and -ka118gj. Concomitance, expressed by inst., '99. Concord, 194. Conditional, 153 ; its syntactical use, 218. Conjugation, I 21-7 j : two kinds of, 124; first: 125 ; 133 ; second 3:a)6 ; I z 7 ; I 34 ; para- digms of the present system, 1 32. Conjugational classes, ten, 124-7. Conjunctive particles, 180. Connecting vowel -a, ~ 4 7 ; 149 ; -i, 89 a ; 136 a ; 152 n ; 157; 160,s; 169. Consonant stems, 75-96. Consonants, 6-13 ; changes of, 32 ; 37 ; classification of, 29 ; 30 ; doubling of, 51 (cb) ; 52 (h, n) ; final, 2 7 ; 28; 31; 3 2 ; 33) 76; loss of final, z8 ; G I ; con~unct, I I ; I 2 ; list of compound, 13 ; quality of, 30 ; changes in quality of, 32; Ved~c Sandbi of, pp 236-7. GENERAL INDEX 26 I Contracted forms, 133 A I ; p. I I I , Fitness for, expressed by loc., 204 c. f. n. I ; I 37, 2 a ; 747 a 4; 1 7 0 , ~ ; Frequentative, see Intensive. 171, 3. 1 Future, simple, I 51 ; 214 (in syn- Countries, names of, 193, 3 c. tax); periphrastic, 152; 214 (in I syntax); used imperatively, 2Iqa. Dative case, syntax of, zoo ; 202, ' I e ; with causatives, 198, 4 a . 1 Gender, 70 a ; 186, I ; rules of, 1 8 ~ ; Declension, 70-1 20 ; of nouns, 74- 1 in syntax, 194; natural instead of roz ; of numerals, 104-8 ; of pro- ' $ammatical, 194, 3 b ; attraction nouns, 109-20 ; Vedic, pp. 237-8. ' 1% I94,3 0. Demonstrative pronoun agrees in ' Genitive, absotute, 205, 2; with pre- gender with predicate, 194, 3 c. 1 positions, 176, 2 a ; I77 d ; r78 ; Denominative, I 75. syntax of, 202 ; with causatives, Dentals, 15, 6. 7 ; 34-41 ; palatal- 1 I989 4 a; double, 202 , 6. ized, 38 ; 40 ; 63 c ; cerebralized, I Gerund, 163-6 ; its syntactical use, 39 ; 4: ; 64 ; nominal steins in, 77. 1 210 ; P 24T. Der~vative verbs, 168-75. Gerunds equivalent to prepositions, Desiderative, 169; 170 ; 171 ; ad- 1 I79; 210C. jectives, 197,s. 1 Goal of an action, expressed by the Diphthongs, 5, 3. 4 ; 6. acc., 197, I ; by the dat., 2 0 0 A I b ; Dissimilation, 96, z ; 66 B I CL. by the loc., 204. Distance expressed by acc., 197, 2 ; Gutturals, reversion to, 81 ; 92 ; bv loc.. 2 0 2 i. 134 A 2 c ; r60, I b; 171, 4. " 0 ~ i s h i b o i i v e adverbs, 108 c; relative, 1 ~~~d 6,f.". ; 31, I ; 32 ; 33. I I ~ C . Hiatus, 16 ; 21 b; 2 2 ; 45; 48 ; 49. Doubling, of ch, 5I ; of Or n, s2. Historical present, 212, I ; 213. Drama, 153. i Hypothetical clauses, 216 d ; 2 18. Dravidian dialects, 2. Dual, its syntactical use, 193, 2 ; , Imperative 2. sing., formation of, 131, 4 ; syntactical use of, 21 j. Endings, in declension, 70; conju- gatiunal, 131 (table); of the per- fect, 136; Vedic, pp. 237, 239, Epics, 26 ; 153; 180 (uta). External Sandhi, I 7--55. Indeclinable, words, 176-81 ; parti- ciple, 163-6 ; 210. Indefinite pronouns, 119. Indirect object, expressed by dat., 200 A ; 202, I e ; by loc., 204 b. , Infinitive, 122; 167 ; its syntactical Feminine, formation of, 73, f.n. I ; 1 use, 21 I ; no passive of, 211 o ; 83;83u; 95;980;99,1 .2 ;100; 1 V e d i c , p . q r . IOI c ; 103, I (1 ; 105,3. 4 ; 107 ; I I 7 a ; I 18; special terminations of (in i and ii btems), loo, 2 ; p. 60, f. n. I ; loo a ; suffixes, 183 (1. Final coilsonants allowable, 27; 28; 61 ; how treated in unchangeable Inscriptions, 2. Insertion, of vowels : a, i, i, 134 A 3 (pr. stem) ; i, 134 A 2 b (imp.) ; 1 7 2 a ; 173b ; 174b (lnt.); of consonants : k, 35 (in Sandhi) ; t, 36 A 6 (in Sandhi) ; n, 66 A z (in stem*, 76. 1 N . ~ t ~ . n . ) ; 1 0 j 1 ~ ; 1 0 6 ~ 1 ( ~ n G . p l . ) ; GENERAL INDEX 168, 3 ("8.) ; 174 b (int.) ; n or I Nasals, 29, 3 ; titlid, 3 5. na, 127, 3 (pr. stem) ; p, 168 ci / Need ' of,' expressed ,by illst., 199, ( C ~ . ) ; Y , I ~ ~ ( ~ O . P ~ . ) ; ~ , I ~ ~ A I . C . ~ g . (pr. &am) ; s, ?, s, 36 B I ( ~ n Neuter, 73 b ; of adjectives in i and Sandhi); s, r j o (prec.); nasal, : u, 98 n ; I O I (7; sof ixe~ , 183 b ; 151 b 2 (ft.) ; 168, 4 (cs.). i its syntactical nse, 194, 3 (f. Instrumental, with prepositional ad- Nominal stem formiltiou, ISZ. verbe, 177 b ; syntactical use of, Nominative, syntactical use of, 196 ; 199 ; 202, r f ; Vedic, p. 237. 1 with iti sometimes=acc., 194, I ; Intensive, 127, 2 a ; 172-4. 196 b. Interjections, I 81. I ~ o u n s , declension of, 74-102. Irregularities, of vo,vel Sandhi, 2 l ; ) Number, lob; I: I a ; I 93 (in syntax). of consonant Sandhi, 48 ; 49 ; In , Kumeral, adverbs, 108 ; cornpoauds, declension, 91 (an stems) ; 92 ; / 188, z o. 99 (i and n stems); in conjuga- : Nutnerals, 104-8 ; 202, j c(. tion : 133, 134 (pr. stem) ; 139 Numerical figures, 14. (pf.) ; 144 (8- a0.o.) ; 147 LZ (SWolld / ao.) ; 149 a (red. ao.) ; 151 b (ft.); I Objective genitive, 202. 168 (cs.) ; 171 (ds.) ; 174 (int..). Labials, stems in, 78. Locative, with prepositions, I 76, 2 a ; absolute, 190 ; 205 ; syntactical use of, 203 ; Vedic, p. 237. Loss of sounds: of initial a, 2 1 a ; 45, 2 b ; 131 A 2 b ; of n~edi:tl a Optative (Potential) ill syntax, 216. Order of worde, 191. Ordinals, 107. Organ of articulation, zg ; 31 ; 37, Pada or iuiddle case-etrdings, 16 a ; 73 ; 75 ; 76. (see Syncope) ; of nleclial u, 134 C I Palatals, origin of, 6, f. n. I ; I j, 4. I ; I34 E ; of final n, 90 ; 94, 2 7 ; nominal stems in, 79 ; repre- (nom.); of radicalnasa1,139,6 (pf.); I rent gutturals in redupiication, 133 A 4 (pr.) ; 168,4 (cs.) ; 160, 2 / I 29, 3. (11p.j ; 165 a (gd.) ; of n in 3. pl. 1 P%li language, 2. endlng, 131,s ; 156 (pr.) ; of Vi- Participles, I 2 2 ; I 56-62 ; senses sarga, 45 ; 48 ; 49 (in Sandhi) ; ( inherent in, 206 ; used with gen. s (nom.), roo, 4 (i-stems). absolute, 205, 2 ; with loc. abro- / l u t e , z o j , ~ b ; pr . ,Sj ; 156; r g S ; Sfanuer, expressed by inst., 1 9 9 , ~ a. / 207 (in syntax) ; ft., 85 ; 156 ; Masculine suffixes, 183. / 158; p f . , 8 9 ; 1 5 i ; t j 9 ; pf.ps., Metathesis, 103, 2 (cpv.) ; 144, 4 (s- 1 160 ; 208 ; 213 ; 213 c (syntax) ; ao.) ; I 51 b, I (ft.) ; 167 (inf.). with gel)., aoa, 3 a ; ft. ps., 162 ; MetreinclassicalSanskrit, pp. 232-5. / 202,3 b ; meaning andcoustr~~ction Middle, case-endings, 16 a ; 76 ; : of, 209; fent. of pr. and ft., 95 a,h ; stem, 72, 73 (declension) ; attraction in gender to predicate, I 2 I ; verbal endings, p 89. vO1ce' / 194, 3 c ; Vedic, p. 241. foods, 122 ; 215-18 (syntax) ; Ve- Partitive genitive, 202. dic, p. 240. l'assive, 1 2 1 ; I 54 (paradigm) ; ao., Morse, metres measured by, p. 235. I 55; construction, ]go ; 196; 198, Motive,expressed by ablative,zor, I. j 4 b ; 199, z Z, ; 2 10. AMultiplicative, adverbs, 108 a ; Past, part~ciples used as finiteverbs, words with abl., 201, 2 c ; with 1 208 ; tenses, 113. gen., 102, 5 1( . I Perfect, 135-9; endings of, 136 ; CENEIlhL INDEX 263 of, 138 ; irregularities of, 139 ; syntactical use of, 213. Periphrastic forms : perfect, 140 ; future, I52 ; in nvntax, 2 14 ; non- existent in the Rig-veda, p. 240, 9 Pluperfect, not used in Sanskrit, 2 I 3 e ; Vedic, p. 239. Ylural, its syntactrcal use, 193, 3 a-c ; words used only in, I 93, 3 d ; used for singular,- 195, I c ; Vedic, p. 238. Positive for comparative, 199 ; with - - abl., 201, z a. Po~ses>ive genitive, 2 0 2 . Postpoaitions, 176. Potential (Optative), a 16; in condi- tional sentences, 216, 2 d ; 218. P r i k r ~ t dialects, 2. Frecative (Benedictive), 150 ; 2 17. Predicative nom., 196 n ; part., 207 C. Prefixes, verbal, 184 a ; Vedic, pp. 2393.244. f i epos~ t~ona l adverbs, 1 t7 ; nouns. I 78 ;. ~erunds , x 79. l'repos~t~ons, I 76 ; Vedic, p. 242. Present, system, I 23-34; tense, 212 (syntax); participle in synt.ix, 2 0 7 Price, expressed by inst., 199, I c. I'rimary endings, 13 r ; suffixes, 182, I ; 182, I b. Pronominal declension, 109-20 ; its influence on nominal forms, p. 55, f. n. 2. 3 ; 120. Pronouns, 109-20 ; personal, I 09 ; 195, I (syntax) ; den~on.tratixe, 110-12 ; 195, 2 (syntax); inter- rogative, I r 3 ; relative, "4 ; re- flexive, 11 j ; possessive, I 16 ; 195, 3 (syntax) : compound, I I 7 ; of quantity in -yat, -vat, kc., I IS ; indefinite, I 19 ; 195 (syntax) : Vedic forms of perqonal, p. 23; Pronunciation, I j. Proper names, 188, I a ; 1Sg 11; 193, 3 a. Protasis, 2 16, 2 cl ; 2 I 8. Punctuation, g. Furpoae, expressed by dat., zoo. l:enson, expressed by inst., 199, I n : by abl., 201, I. Reduplication, general rules of, I 29 ; special rules of, 130 (pr.); 13j, 1-4 (pf.) ; 149 @.) ; I70 (ds.) ; 173 (int.); with an-, 139, G ; with final radical nasal repeated, 173 n (int.); with nasal inserted, 1 7 4 ~ . b (int.) ; Vedic, p. 239. Rhythm in red. ao., 1 4 9 , ~ ; 149 a, I . Root as nominal stem, ISZ, I n. Sandhi, nature of, 16 ; 1. ex te rna l : of vowels, 18 ; 19; 20 ; of diph- thongs, 2 I ; 2 2 ; irregular, 23 ; absence of, 24-6 ; of consonants, 27-5 5 : of final k, t, t, p before n or m, 33 ; of final t before 1, 34 ; before palatals, 38 ; before cere- b r a l ~ , 39 ; of final nasats, 35 ; of final dental n, 36 ; 40 ; 41 ; of final n ~ , 42 ; of final Visarga, 43 ; 44 ; 49 ; of the final syllable ah. 4 j, 2 ; 46 ; 48 ; ~f the final s j liable "!,45,1; 46; o f f ina l r ,46 ; 4;; 50 ; 2. i n t e r n a l : 56 ; of vo\vel~, 5 7 ; 58; of 7, 58 ; 154, 3 ; of f , 58; 154, 4 ; of d~phthongs, 59; of consonants, 60 ; of palatals before consonants, 63 ; of dental3 after cerebrals, 64 ; of dental s. 67 ; of 1n before y, r , 1, v, 68; of h before a. t, th, dh, 69; Vedlc, pp. 236-7. Sanskrit and Vedic, I. Secoudary endings, 131 ; suffixes. 182, 2. Semivowels, 17 I3 I ; no ; 29, 4. Sibilants, 29, 5. Soft sound-, 6, f. n. 5 ; 30, I. Space, exteniion of: expressed by acc., 197, z. Spirants, 29, 6. Stem formation, nominal, 182. Stems, classification of nominal, 74 ; endinginconso~tants, 74-96 ; nouns with two, 85-8; nouns with three, 89-93 ; ending in vowels, 97-102. Strong stem in declension, 7 2 ; 73 ; in conjugation, 124; 126 (pi-.); I34 (pr.1; 186 (pf ) ; 142 (so.). 264 GENERL\L INDEX Subjective genitive, aoz. 1 Verb, concord of the, r 94, 2. 4 ; Subjunctive, surviving forms of, Vedic accent of, p. 243. I 2 2 a ; 2 I j a ; its meming ex- 1 Verbs of going (with abstract sub- pessed by the optative, 216 ; / stantives), 197, I a ; of fearing, Vedic, p. 240. , zor a (ab1.j ; of separating, 201 b Suffixes, primary, 18a, I ; secondary, I (abl.), 199, 2 b (inst.); govet.ning 182, 2 ; 16 a. Superlative suffix in -tams, 103, I ; in -i@h&, 103, a. / Vocative, 7.1 n ; 7 2 a ; .76 a ; 94, 3 ; Syncope, go (-an stems) ; 134 A 2 c 981j;V~dlc,p.237; accent of,p.zq3. (pr.); 134 A 4 (radical) ; 137, 2 r , 1 Voice of the verb, r 21. (pf.); 171, 3 (ds.); Vedic,,p. 237. i Vowel declension,. 97-102 : stems Syntax, 190-218 ; character~stics 01 / in a, ?L, 97 ; in I, u, .98 ; in i, a , Sansltrit, 190. ; l o o ; in F, 101 ; i r ~ a], o, au, 1 0 2 . ! Vowels, 5 ; classification of, I 7 ; co- Tenses, 122 ; 212-14 ; past, 213 ; alescence of, 18; 19 ; lengthencrl, Vedic, p. 239. I 82 (i. u), 83 (nonl. pl. n.), 85 a Terminatinns, see Endings. 1 (~nahat), 86 (-mat, -vat stems), ' Than,' expressed by abl., 201, 2 ( 1 . , 87 (-in stems), 92 (han), 94, I Time, gen. of, 2 0 2 , 5 ; lac. of, 203 i ; 1 (norn. masc.), 154, 2 (i, u in ps.), durat~on of, 197, 2 (acc.) ; witl~in i 155 (DS. ao.), 160, z c (1)s. pt.), which, 199, I t l (inst.) ; 162, I C (ft. pt. ps.), 169, r (dr.) , which, 201 tl (abl.). after 1 171, I ( d r ) , 173 (ink), l;j (den.), Transitive sense of some perfect I 184, X. (i for a., 4 i) ; liquicl, passive participles, 208 6. I 7 I: I ; zo ; shortened, 94,3 (v.) ; 1 129, "red. sya.); 131, t.n. (ps Unaccented pronouns, log a ; 1 1 2 a ; , stem) ; lSzr I CL (%); 187 b ( 2 ; 19 j b ; Vedic forms, p. 243. i stems cudirtg in, 97-102 ; Vedic Unaugmentcd forms, Vedic, p. 239. / Sandhi of, p. 236. Unchangeable consonant stems, 75- 83- / W.\~ay ' b y ' \vhich, expressed by the 'Use of,' expressed by inst., 199, 1 g. ~nst., 199, I e. I Weak steal, in declension, 72 ; 84 ; Vedic, I ; outlines of its grammar, 1 inconjugation, 134 A z; 137 (pf.); 111'. 236;44. 1 1 6 0 , ~ (pp.) ; in compo~~nds, 185 a. Veh~cle on' which, expressled by Writing, origin of Indian, 3 ; of inst., 199, I e. 1 vowelr,5 ; of consonnnts,8; I I; 12.

Introduction to Sanskrit

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Introduction to Sanskrit

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