Amelioration of Chlorpyrifos-Induced Toxicity in Brassica juncea L. by Combination of 24-Epibrassinolide and Plant-Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria

Pervasive use of chlorpyrifos (CP), an organophosphorus pesticide, has been proven to be fatal for plant growth, especially at higher concentrations. CP poisoning leads to growth inhibi-tion, chlorosis, browning of roots and lipid and protein degradation, along with membrane dysfunction and nuclear damage. Plants form a linking bridge between the underground and above-ground communities to escape from the unfavourable conditions. Association with beneficial rhi-zobacteria promotes the growth and development of the plants. Plant hormones are crucial regulators of basically every aspect of plant development. The growing significance of plant hormones in mediating plant–microbe interactions in stress recovery in plants has been extensively highlighted. Hence, the goal of the current study was to investigate the effect of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) and PGPRs (Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Ma), Burkholderia gladioli (Mb)) on growth and the antioxidative defence system of CP-stressed Brassica juncea L. seedlings. CP toxicity reduced the germination po-tential, hypocotyl and radicle development and vigour index, which was maximally recuperated after priming with EBL and Mb. CP-exposed seedlings showed higher levels of superoxide anion (O2.−), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), lipid peroxidation and electrolyte leakage (EL) and a lower level of nitric oxide (NO). In-vivo visualisation of CP-stressed seedlings using a light and fluorescent microscope also revealed the increase in O2.−, H2O2 and lipid peroxidation, and decreased NO levels. The combination of EBL and PGPRs reduced the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialde-hyde (MDA) contents and improved the NO level. In CP-stressed seedlings, increased gene expression of defence enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APOX), glu-tathione peroxidase (GPOX), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) and glutathione reductase (GPOX) was seen, with the exception of catalase (CAT) on supplementation with EBL and PGPRs. The activity of nitrate reductase (NR) was likewise shown to increase after treatment with EBL and PGPRs. The results obtained from the present study substantiate sufficient evidence regarding the positive association of EBL and PGPRs in amelioration of CP-induced oxidative stress in Brassica juncea seedlings by strengthening the antioxidative defence machinery