A histological study of normal and pathological limb regeneration in the Mexican axolotl Ambystoma mexicanum

Salamanders show unparalleled capacities of tissue regeneration amongst tetrapods (four-legged vertebrates), being able to repair and renew lost or damage body parts, such as tails, jaws, and limbs in a seemingly perfect fashion. Despite countless studies on axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) regeneration, only a few studies have thus far compared gross morphological and histological features of the original and regenerated limb skeleton. Therein, most studies have focused on nerves or muscles, while even fewer have provided detailed information about bones and cartilage. This study compares skeletal tissue structures of original and regenerated limbs with respect to tissue level histology. Histological serial sections of 55 axolotl larvae were generated, including 29 limbs that were severed by conspecifics, and 26 that were subject to targeted amputations. Amputations were executed in several larval stages (48, 52, and 53) and at different limb positions (humeral midshaft, above the mesopod). In addition, 3D reconstructions were prepared based on X-ray microtomography scans. The results demonstrate that regenerated forelimbs show a diversity of limb and digit abnormalities as a result of imperfect regeneration. Furthermore, abnormalities were more severe and more frequent in regenerated forelimbs caused by natural bites as compared with regenerated forelimbs after amputation. The results indicate that abnormalities occur frequently after regeneration in larval axolotls contradicting the notion of regeneration generally resulting in perfect limbs.Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001659Peer Reviewe