Do goal setting interventions promote physical activity and psychological outcomes in insufficiently active adults?

Early findings demonstrated that goals are effective when used for physical activity (PA; McEwan et al., 2016), however research has yet to synthesise this relationship in insufficiently active adults. Recent evidence also suggests vague goals may be more pleasurable and enjoyable than specific goals for insufficiently active adults (Hawkins et al., 2020). With the aim to develop a better understanding of the impact of goal types on insufficiently active adults, a systematic review and meta-analysis, including 14 studies (43 effect sizes; n = 1264), was conducted to analyse the effects of goals on PA and psychological outcomes in insufficiently active adults (PROSPERO: CRD42021243970). Specific goals were compared to no goal/baseline conditions in all studies; goals had a positive, large effect on PA levels (g[SMD] = 1.08, 95% CI 0.75-1.41, I2 = 91%, [p < .00001]), yet non-significant effects on psychological outcomes (e.g., motivation and mood; g[SMD] = 0.24, 95% CI 0.11-0.37, I2 = 78%, [p < .00001]). Daily step count (k = 11) and self-efficacy (k = 10) were the most studied variables. Subgroup analyses were conducted for study characteristics, sample characteristics, goal content, and goal related behaviour change techniques, with baseline weight of participants (overweight: g = 1.76; obese: g = 0.90) presenting as the only moderating variables of goal success for increasing PA. Only specific goals have been studied in this context, future research should analyse different goal types effect on PA. Additionally, research is lacking on the effects of goals on psychological outcomes in insufficiently active adults