Investigating Islamophobia: Identifying Risk and Protective Factors in the Muslim American Community

Muslim Americans have experienced considerable anti-Muslim discrimination as a result of ongoing exposure to Islamophobic rhetoric and hate crimes (Khan & Ecklund, 2012; Kunst et al., 2012). Like other forms of oppression, Islamophobia operates at an interpersonal and institutional level (Helms, 2016). This study explored societal and interpersonal anti-Muslim discrimination experienced by 188 Muslim adults in the United States. Vigilance, community connectedness, and social support were investigated as potential moderators in the relationship between societal and interpersonal anti-Muslim discrimination and psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress). Results suggested that vigilance exacerbated the relationship between societal anti-Muslim discrimination and anxiety. Social support initially buffered the effects of interpersonal anti-Muslim discrimination and depression; however, this finding was not substantiated when controlling for the influence of COVID-19 related stressors. There was no evidence to suggest the moderating effects of community connectedness. Clinical implications and recommendations for future research are also discussed