Wind Energy Development and Protection of Vulnerable Species: An Interdisciplinary Study of Ecological Effects and Legal Instruments in the Netherlands

Offshore wind farms' impact on vulnerable species, such as birds and bats through mortality, habitat loss, and barrier effects, is receiving growing attention worldwide. Focus on the effects of wind energy on species is important since the European Union, as well as the international community, strive to halt biodiversity loss through the Nature Conversation Directives and the Sustainable Development Goals. We argue that it is necessary and possible to protect vulnerable species better by quantifying the impact of wind energy on populations, avoiding sensitive areas for species as wind energy development areas, and developing guidelines and measures to mitigate the impact of wind energy. The recognition of existing uncertainties requires more investments in (at least) nationally coordinated monitoring, reporting and adaptive management. This article uncovers barriers in the existing legal framework based on state-of-the-art ecological research. It provides several policy recommendations for improvement, such as a policy guideline, adaptive permitting, and prioritizing (cumulative effects in) environmental impact assessments in wind energy decision-making procedures