Seal bomb explosion sound source characterization.

Small explosive charges, called seal bombs, used by commercial fisheries to deter marine mammals from depredation and accidental bycatch during fishing operations, produce high level sounds that may negatively impact nearby animals. Seal bombs were exploded underwater and recorded at various ranges with a calibrated hydrophone to characterize the pulse waveforms and to provide appropriate propagation loss models for source level (SL) estimates. Waveform refraction became important at about 1500 m slant range with approximately spherical spreading losses observed at shorter ranges. The SL for seal bombs was estimated to be 233 dB re 1 μPa m; however, for impulses such as explosions, better metrics integrate over the pulse duration, accounting for the total energy in the pulse, including source pressure impulse, estimated as 193 Pa m s, and sound exposure source level, estimated as 197 dB re 1 μPa2 m2 s over a 2 ms window. Accounting for the whole 100 ms waveform, including the bubble pulses and sea surface reflections, sound exposure source level was 203 dB re 1 μPa2 m2 s. Furthermore, integrating the energy over an entire event period of multiple explosions (i.e., cumulative sound exposure level) should be considered when evaluating impact