Liquefaction and Cyclic Softening at Balboa Boulevard during the 1994 Northridge Earthquake

The seismic performance of Balboa Boulevard during the 1994 MW 6.7 Northridge earthquake was examined through nonlinear deformation analyses (NDAs) using advanced tools to (1) investigate the failure mechanism leading to ground deformations at this site; (2) evaluate the accuracy of the adopted analysis methods, engineering procedures, and state-of-the-art tools to reasonably estimate horizontal ground displacements; and (3) identify key factors and parameters contributing to earthquake-induced ground deformations at this site. One-dimensional (1D) liquefaction vulnerability indexes (LVIs) and permanent displacements using Newmark sliding block analyses were also estimated and compared against ground deformations observed after the earthquake. The geotechnical characterization of Balboa Boulevard was assessed based on field and laboratory data obtained from two investigation campaigns. Transitional probability geostatistics were used to develop stratigraphic models that capture the heterogeneity and the spatial variability patterns of sand-like and clay-like soils present at this site. The stratigraphic models were implemented in the finite difference software FLAC and the behavior of sand-like and clay-like soils simulated using the PM4Sand and PM4Silt constitutive models, respectively. Sensitivity analyses were performed to address uncertainties associated with the spatial variability of soils, input ground motions, the proportion of sand-like and clay-like soils within the soil deposit, and the strength properties of these materials. Results from NDAs suggest that a compounded effect of both liquefaction of sand-like soils and cyclic softening of clay-like soils led to the excessive ground deformations at Balboa Boulevard. This study sheds light on the importance of using appropriate engineering procedures and numerical modeling protocols in the prediction of deformation patterns, the selection of key input parameters, as well as the applicability of LVIs in complex sites