Environmental heterogeneity effects on predator and parasitoid insects vary across spatial scales and seasons. A multi-taxon approach

1. As predator and parasitoid insects depend on multiple resources for adult feeding and reproduction, environmental heterogeneity (EH) is expected to be a key driver of their species diversity. In temperate regions, the benefits of EH are expected to vary across spatial scales and seasons, depending on species life-history traits and temporal fluctuations in resources. 2. We tested the importance of EH at multiple spatial scales on diversity and abundance of predator and parasitoid insects, and whether its effects changed across seasons. 3. Insect sampling was carried out in highly fragmented landscapes in a Mediterranean region (Tuscany, Central Italy). We selected 18 semi-natural patches, embedded in an intensive agricultural matrix. For each patch, EH was measured at three spatial scales (micro, patch, and landscape). Five groups of predator and parasitoid insects were sampled 16 times with pan traps between March and November, 2012. 4. EH at the landscape scale positively influenced the diversity of predator and parasitoid insects, while the effects at smaller spatial scales were less evident. The strength and the direction of EH˗diversity relationship changed between groups and across seasons, indicating that the mechanisms by which EH affects predators and parasitoids are various and complex. 5. Conservation strategies aimed at maximising the diversity of predators and parasitoids should focus more on increasing EH at the landscape scale than at the local scale