The manufacture, use, and significance of shell disc beads from the 9th to 13th century CE in northern South Africa

Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2021.Shell disc beads (SDB) are some of the earliest ornaments made by humans, and are frequently found in the archaeological record of both hunter-gatherer and farming (Iron Age) societies in South Africa. Despite being one of the most common decorative items found on Iron Age farming settlements, very little is known about who manufactured them, how they were manufactured, or how they were used. This is particularly true for the important archaeological sites of K2 and Mapungubwe on the farm Greefswald 37MS, part of the Mapungubwe National Park in the Shashe-Limpopo Confluence Area (SLCA) of northern South Africa. This dissertation focuses on the SDB from K2 and Mapungubwe and provides an in-depth analysis of morphological characteristics to identify changes in their manufacture and use. Results suggest several differences in the morphological characteristics between the Greefswald settlements, including diameter, thickness, and drilling direction. These differences are largely a factor of shell type. The sample analysed from K2 consisted predominantly of Achatina, while the sample from Mapungubwe almost exclusively consisted of ostrich eggshell. The sample from K2 also presented large quantities of other shell types, suggesting their use of raw materials were more diverse. This finding accentuates the significance of raw materials and the importance of discriminating between different shell types when comparing SDB data between sites. On a site level, the sample from K2 presented little standardization, both in raw material use and manufacturing techniques, while Mapungubwe Hill presented a greater degree of bead standardization and displayed specific preferences. This, and the increased used of ostrich eggshell to make SDB, is likely due to increased economic specialisation and the intensification of trade that characterises the Mapungubwe period. Increased social complexity allowed Mapungubwe elites to harness new forms of labour and natural resources thereby changing patterns of the SDB usage on the site. This study is the first research to analyse patterns in style, manufacture, and use of SDB on K2 and Mapungubwe. It lays the foundation for a renewed investigation of SDB on early sites of social complexity in particular, and the Iron Age of southern Africa more generally.Anthropology and ArchaeologyMAUnrestricte